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Korzeniowski, C. G., Ison, M. S., & Difabio, H. (2017). Cognitive stimulation in children at social risk: its transference to school performance. International Journal of Psychological Research, 10(2), 34–45. https://doi.org/10.21500/20112084.2760
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The editorial board reserves the right of amendments deemed necessary in the application of the rules of publication.
To give up copyright, the authors allow that, International Journal of Psychological Research, distribute the work more broadly, check for the reuse by others and take care of the necessary procedures for the registration and administration of copyright; at the same time, our editorial board represents the interests of the author and allows authors to re-use his work in various forms. In response to the above, authors transfer copyright to the journal, International Journal of Psychological Research. This transfer does not imply other rights which are not those of authorship (for example those that concern about patents). Likewise, preserves the authors rights to use the work integral or partially in lectures, books and courses, as well as make copies for educational purposes. Finally, the authors may use freely the tables and figures in its future work, wherever make explicit reference to the previous publication in International Journal of Psychological Research. The assignment of copyright includes both virtual rights and forms of the article to allow the editorial to disseminate the work in the manner which it deems appropriate.
The editorial board reserves the right of amendments deemed necessary in the application of the rules of publication.
Abstract
The present study set out to evaluate the effectiveness of a group cognitive intervention aimed at promoting executive functions in children at social risk, and its resulting effect on school performance. The quasi-experimental, pretest-posttest design included a control group. The sample was made up of 178 children (52% boys), aged 6-10. The children were evaluated by means of a battery of neuropsychological EF tests, learning achievement tests, and a teacher-rated behavioral EF scale. The intervention program included 30 group cognitive stimulation sessions that increased in difficulty and was embedded into school curricula. Trained children performed better in terms of cognitive flexibility, planning, metacognition, inhibitory control, word identification and dictation, as compared to their baseline values and children in the control group. This study provides new evidence of the effectiveness of cognitive interventions in children and its possibility to transfer cognitive gains to school performance contexts.
Key words: cognitive intervention, executive functions, school performance, children, poverty.
References
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American Psychological Association. (2002). Ethical principles of psychologists and code of conduct. American Psychologist, 57, 1060-1073. Recuperado de http://www.apa.org/ethics/code/principles.pdf
Anderson, V., Anderson, P., Northam, E., Jacobs, R., & Mikiewiez, O. (2002). Relationship Between Cognitive and Behavioral Measures of Executive Function in Children with Brain Disease. Child Neuropsychology, 8(4), 231-240. doi: 10.1076/chin.8.4.231.13509
Barker, J. E., Semenov, A. D., Michaelson, L., Provan, L. S., Snyder, H. R., & Munakata, Y. (2014). Less-structured time in children’s daily lives predicts self-directed executive functioning. Frontiers in Psychology, 5, 1-16. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00593
Best, J., Miller, P., & Naglieri, J. (2011). Relations between Executive Function and Academic Achievement from Ages 5 to 17 in a Large, Representative National Sample. Learn Individ Differ, 21(4), 327-336. doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2011.01.007
Blair, C., & Raver, C., 2014. Closing the achievement gap through modification of neurocognitive and neuroendocrine function: results from a cluster randomized controlled trial of an innovative approach to the education of children in kindergarten. PLoS ONE, 9(11), e112393, doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0112393
Booth, J., Boyle, J., & Kelly, S. (2014). The relationship between inhibition and working memory in predicting children’s reading difficulties. Journal of Research in Reading, 37(1), 84-101. doi:10.1111/1467-9817.12011
Carrada, M. (2011). El mecanismo atencional en niños escolarizados: Baremación de instrumentos para su medición. (Tesis doctoral). Universidad Nacional de San Luis, Argentina.
Cohen, J. (1992). Statistical power analysis. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 1, 98-101. doi:10.1111/1467-8721.ep10768783
Comisión de Enlace Institucional. (2006). NSE 2006 Informe final. Recuperado de: https://es.scribd.com/doc/64283742/Nivel-Socio-Economico-2006-de-Argentina-23-11-2006-Informe-Final-SAIMO-AAM-CEIM
Checa, P., & Rueda, M. R. (2011). Behavioral and Brain Measures of Executive Attention and School Competence in Late Childhood. Developmental Neuropsychology, 36(8), 1018-1032. doi: 10.1080/87565641.2011.591857
Davidson, M., Amsoa, D., Anderson, L. C., & Diamond, A. (2006). Development of cognitive control and executive functions from 4 to 13 years: Evidence from manipulations of memory, inhibition, and task switching. Neuropsychologia, 44(11), 2037-2078. doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2006.02.006
Diamond, A. (2012). Activities and Programs That Improve Children’s Executive Functions. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 21(5), 335–341. doi: 10.1177/0963721412453722
Diamond, A. (2013). Executive functions. Annual Review of Psychology, 64(1), 135-168. doi: 10.1146/annurev-psych-113011-143750
Diamond, A., Barnett, W. S., Thomas, J., & Munro, S. (2007). Preschool Program Improves Cognitive Control. Science, 318(5855), 1387-1388. doi: 10.1126/science.1151148.
Diamond, A., & Ling, D. S. (2016). Conclusions about interventions, programs, and approaches for improving executive functions that appear justified and those that, despite much hype, do not. Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience, 18, 34-48. doi: 10.1016/j.dcn.2015.11.005
Flores-Lázaro, J. C., Castillo-Preciado, R. E., & Jiménez-Miramonte, N. A. (2014). Desarrollo de funciones ejecutivas de la niñez a la juventud. Anales de psicología, 30(2), 463-473. doi: 10.6018/analesps.30.2.155471
Fuhs, M. W., Nesbitt, K. T., Farran, D. C., & Dong, N. (2014). Longitudinal Associations Between Executive Functioning and Academic Skills Across Content Areas. Developmental Psychology, 50(6), 1698-1709. doi: 10.1037/a0036633
García-Pérez, M., & Magaz-Lago, A. (2000). Escala Magallanes de Atención Visual. Madrid: Albor-cohs.
Georghiades, P. (2004). From the general to the situated: three decades of Metacognition. INT. J. SCI. EDUC., 26(3), 365-383. doi: 10.1080/0950069032000119401
Gioia, G. A., & Isquith, P. K. (2004). Ecological assessment of executive function in traumatic brain injury. Developmental Neuropsychology, 25(1), 135-158. doi: 10.1080/87565641.2004.9651925
Goldin, A. P., Hermida, M. J., Elías-Costa, M., López-Rosenfeld, M., Shalom, D. E., Segretin, M. S., Fernández-Slezak, D., Lipina, S. J., & Sigman, M. (2014). Far transfer to Language and Math scores of a short software-based gaming intervention. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (PNAS), 111(17), 6443-8. doi:10.1073/pnas.1320217111
Hackman, D. A., Farah, M. J., & Meaney, M. J. (2010). Socioeconomic status and the brain: mechanistic insights from human and animal research. Neuroscience, 11, 651-659. doi:10.1038/nrn2897
Horowitz-Kraus, T. (2015). Improvement in non-linguistic executive functions following reading acceleration training in children with reading difficulties: An ERP study. Trends in Neuroscience and Education, 4 (3), 77-86. doi: 10.1016/j.tine.2015.06.002
Hughes, C. (2011). Changes and Challenges in 20 Years of Research Into the Development of Executive Functions. Infant and Child Development, 20, 251-271. doi: 10.1002/icd.736
Ison, M. S. (2009). Abordaje psicoeductivo para estimular la atención y las habilidades interpresonales en escolares argentinos. Revista de la Facultad de Psicología – Universidad de Lima, 12, 29-51.
Ison, M. S. (2011). Programa de intervención para mejorar las capacidades atencionales en escolares argentinos. International Journal of Psychological Research, 4(2), 72-79. doi:10.21500/20112084.783
Ison, M. S., & Fachinelli, C. C. (1993). Guía de Observación Comportamental para niños. Interdisciplinaria, 12(1), 11-21.
Ison, M. S., Greco, C., Korzeniowski, C., & Morelato, G. (2015). Attentional Efficiency: a Comparative Study on Argentine Students Attending Schools from Different Socio-Cultural Contexts. Electronic Journal of Research in Educational Psychology, 13(2), 343-368. doi: 10.14204/ejrep.36.14092
Ison, M. S., Korzeniowski, C., Segretin, M. S., & Lipina, J. S. (2015). Evaluación de la eficacia atencional en niños argentinos sin y con extraedad escolar. Revista Argentina de Ciencias del Comportamiento, 7(1), 38-52.
Ison, M. S., & Korzeniowski, C. (2016). El Rol de la Atención y Percepción Viso-Espacial en el Desempeño Lector en la Mediana Infancia. PSYKHE, 25(1), 1-13. doi:10.7764/psykhe.25.1.761
Koechlin, E., & Summerfield, C. (2007). An information theoretical aprroach to prefrontal executive fuction. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 11(6), 229-235. doi: 10.106/j.tics.2007.04.005
Korzeniowski, C. (2015). Programa de estimulación de las funciones ejecutivas y su incidencia en el rendimiento escolar en alumnos mendocinos de escuelas primarias de zonas urbano-marginadas. (Tesis doctoral). Universidad Nacional de San Luis, Argentina.
Krikorian, R., & Bartok, J. A. (1998). Developmental data for Porteus Maze Test. The Clinical Neuropshycologist, 12(3), 305-310. doi: 10.1076/clin.12.3.305.1984
Lipina, S. J., Hermida, M. J., Segretin, M. S., Prats, L. Fracchia, C., & Colombo, J. A. (2011). Investigación en pobreza infantil desde perspectivas neurocognitivas. En S. J. Lipina y M. Sigman (Eds.), La pizarra de Babel. Puentes entre neurociencia, psicología y educación, (pp. 243-264). Buenos Aires: Libros Del Zorzal.
Lucangeli, D., & Cornoldi, C. (1997).Mathematics and Metacognition: What is the nature of the relationship? Mathematical cognition, 3(2), 121-139. doi: 10.1080/135467997387443
Marino, J. C., Fernández, A. L., & Alderete, A. M. (2001). Valores normativos y validez conceptual del test Laberintos de Porteus en una muestra de adultos argentinos. Revista de Neurología Argentina, 26, 102-107.
Matthews, J. S., Marulis, L. M., & Williford, A. P. (2014). Gender processes in school functioning and the mediating role of cognitive self-regulation. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 35, 128-137. doi:10.1016/j.appdev.2014.02.003
Matute, E., Chamorro, Y., Inozemtseva, O., Barrios, O., Rosselli, M., & Ardila, A. (2008). Efecto de la edad en una tarea de planificación y organización (‘pirámide de México’) en escolares. Revista de Neurología, 47(2), 61-70.
Matute, E., Sanz, A., Gumá, E., Roselli, M., & Ardila, A. (2009). Influencia del nivel educativo de los padres, el tipo de escuela y el sexo en el desarrollo de la atención y la memoria. Revista Latinoamericana de Psicología, 41(2), 257-273. doi:1434/rlp.v41i2.380
Moffitt, T. E., Arseneault, L., Belsky, D., Dickson, N., Hancox, R. J., Harrington, H., Caspi, A. (2011). A gradient of childhood self-control predicts health, wealth, and public safety. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (PNAS), 108, 2693-2698. doi:10.1073/pnas.1010076108.
Muñoz-Sandoval, A. F., Woodcock, R. W., Mc Grez, K. S., & Mather, N. (2005). Batería III Woodcock –Muñoz. Itsaca, IL: Riverside Publishing.
Noble, K. G., & Farah, M. J. (2013). Neurocognitive consequences of socioeconomic disparities: the intersection of cognitive neuroscience and public health. Developmental Science, 16(5), 639-640. doi: 10.1111/desc.12076.
Porteus, S. D. (2006) Laberintos de Porteus (4a ed.). Madrid: TEA Ediciones.
Roebers, C., Cimeli, P., Röthlisberger, M., & Neuenschwander, R. (2012). Executive functioning, metacognition, and self-perceived competence in elementary school children: an explorative study on their interrelations and their role for school achievement. Metacognition Learning, 7, 151-173. doi: 10.1007/s11409-012-9089-9
Röthlisberger, M., Neuenschwander, R., Cimeli, P., Michel, E., & Roebers, C. (2012). Improving executive functions in 5- and 6-year-olds: Evaluation of a small group intervention in prekindergarten and kindergarten children. Infant and Child Development, 21, 411-429. doi: 10.1002/icd.752
Segretin, M. S., Lipina, S. J., Hermida, M. J., Sheffield, T., Nelson, J. M., Espy, K. A., & Colombo, J. A. (2014). Predictors of cognitive enhancement after training in two samples of Argentinean preschoolers from diverse socioeconomic backgrounds. Frontiers in Psychology, 5, 1-20. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00205
Stanovich, K. E. (1986). Matthew effects in reading: Some consequences of individual differences in the acquisition of literacy. Reading Research Quarterly, 21, 360-407.
Turner-Nesbitt, K., Baker-Ward, L. & Willoughby, M. L. (2013). Executive function mediates socio-economic and racial differences in early academic achievement. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 28, 774-783. doi:10.1016/j.ecresq.2013.07.005
Welsh, J. A., Nix, R. L., Blair, C., Bierman, L., & Nelson, K. E. (2010).The Development of Cognitive Skills and Gains in Academic School Readiness for Children From Low-Income Families. Journal of Educational Psychology, 102(1), 43-53. doi: 10.1037/a0016738
Woodcock, R. W., & Muñoz-Sandoval, A. F. (1996). Batería Woodcock-Muñoz: Pruebas de aprovechamiento-Revisada. Itasca, IL: Riverside Publishing.
American Psychological Association. (2002). Ethical principles of psychologists and code of conduct. American Psychologist, 57, 1060-1073. Recuperado de http://www.apa.org/ethics/code/principles.pdf
Anderson, V., Anderson, P., Northam, E., Jacobs, R., & Mikiewiez, O. (2002). Relationship Between Cognitive and Behavioral Measures of Executive Function in Children with Brain Disease. Child Neuropsychology, 8(4), 231-240. doi: 10.1076/chin.8.4.231.13509
Barker, J. E., Semenov, A. D., Michaelson, L., Provan, L. S., Snyder, H. R., & Munakata, Y. (2014). Less-structured time in children’s daily lives predicts self-directed executive functioning. Frontiers in Psychology, 5, 1-16. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00593
Best, J., Miller, P., & Naglieri, J. (2011). Relations between Executive Function and Academic Achievement from Ages 5 to 17 in a Large, Representative National Sample. Learn Individ Differ, 21(4), 327-336. doi:10.1016/j.lindif.2011.01.007
Blair, C., & Raver, C., 2014. Closing the achievement gap through modification of neurocognitive and neuroendocrine function: results from a cluster randomized controlled trial of an innovative approach to the education of children in kindergarten. PLoS ONE, 9(11), e112393, doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0112393
Booth, J., Boyle, J., & Kelly, S. (2014). The relationship between inhibition and working memory in predicting children’s reading difficulties. Journal of Research in Reading, 37(1), 84-101. doi:10.1111/1467-9817.12011
Carrada, M. (2011). El mecanismo atencional en niños escolarizados: Baremación de instrumentos para su medición. (Tesis doctoral). Universidad Nacional de San Luis, Argentina.
Cohen, J. (1992). Statistical power analysis. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 1, 98-101. doi:10.1111/1467-8721.ep10768783
Comisión de Enlace Institucional. (2006). NSE 2006 Informe final. Recuperado de: https://es.scribd.com/doc/64283742/Nivel-Socio-Economico-2006-de-Argentina-23-11-2006-Informe-Final-SAIMO-AAM-CEIM
Checa, P., & Rueda, M. R. (2011). Behavioral and Brain Measures of Executive Attention and School Competence in Late Childhood. Developmental Neuropsychology, 36(8), 1018-1032. doi: 10.1080/87565641.2011.591857
Davidson, M., Amsoa, D., Anderson, L. C., & Diamond, A. (2006). Development of cognitive control and executive functions from 4 to 13 years: Evidence from manipulations of memory, inhibition, and task switching. Neuropsychologia, 44(11), 2037-2078. doi:10.1016/j.neuropsychologia.2006.02.006
Diamond, A. (2012). Activities and Programs That Improve Children’s Executive Functions. Current Directions in Psychological Science, 21(5), 335–341. doi: 10.1177/0963721412453722
Diamond, A. (2013). Executive functions. Annual Review of Psychology, 64(1), 135-168. doi: 10.1146/annurev-psych-113011-143750
Diamond, A., Barnett, W. S., Thomas, J., & Munro, S. (2007). Preschool Program Improves Cognitive Control. Science, 318(5855), 1387-1388. doi: 10.1126/science.1151148.
Diamond, A., & Ling, D. S. (2016). Conclusions about interventions, programs, and approaches for improving executive functions that appear justified and those that, despite much hype, do not. Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience, 18, 34-48. doi: 10.1016/j.dcn.2015.11.005
Flores-Lázaro, J. C., Castillo-Preciado, R. E., & Jiménez-Miramonte, N. A. (2014). Desarrollo de funciones ejecutivas de la niñez a la juventud. Anales de psicología, 30(2), 463-473. doi: 10.6018/analesps.30.2.155471
Fuhs, M. W., Nesbitt, K. T., Farran, D. C., & Dong, N. (2014). Longitudinal Associations Between Executive Functioning and Academic Skills Across Content Areas. Developmental Psychology, 50(6), 1698-1709. doi: 10.1037/a0036633
García-Pérez, M., & Magaz-Lago, A. (2000). Escala Magallanes de Atención Visual. Madrid: Albor-cohs.
Georghiades, P. (2004). From the general to the situated: three decades of Metacognition. INT. J. SCI. EDUC., 26(3), 365-383. doi: 10.1080/0950069032000119401
Gioia, G. A., & Isquith, P. K. (2004). Ecological assessment of executive function in traumatic brain injury. Developmental Neuropsychology, 25(1), 135-158. doi: 10.1080/87565641.2004.9651925
Goldin, A. P., Hermida, M. J., Elías-Costa, M., López-Rosenfeld, M., Shalom, D. E., Segretin, M. S., Fernández-Slezak, D., Lipina, S. J., & Sigman, M. (2014). Far transfer to Language and Math scores of a short software-based gaming intervention. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (PNAS), 111(17), 6443-8. doi:10.1073/pnas.1320217111
Hackman, D. A., Farah, M. J., & Meaney, M. J. (2010). Socioeconomic status and the brain: mechanistic insights from human and animal research. Neuroscience, 11, 651-659. doi:10.1038/nrn2897
Horowitz-Kraus, T. (2015). Improvement in non-linguistic executive functions following reading acceleration training in children with reading difficulties: An ERP study. Trends in Neuroscience and Education, 4 (3), 77-86. doi: 10.1016/j.tine.2015.06.002
Hughes, C. (2011). Changes and Challenges in 20 Years of Research Into the Development of Executive Functions. Infant and Child Development, 20, 251-271. doi: 10.1002/icd.736
Ison, M. S. (2009). Abordaje psicoeductivo para estimular la atención y las habilidades interpresonales en escolares argentinos. Revista de la Facultad de Psicología – Universidad de Lima, 12, 29-51.
Ison, M. S. (2011). Programa de intervención para mejorar las capacidades atencionales en escolares argentinos. International Journal of Psychological Research, 4(2), 72-79. doi:10.21500/20112084.783
Ison, M. S., & Fachinelli, C. C. (1993). Guía de Observación Comportamental para niños. Interdisciplinaria, 12(1), 11-21.
Ison, M. S., Greco, C., Korzeniowski, C., & Morelato, G. (2015). Attentional Efficiency: a Comparative Study on Argentine Students Attending Schools from Different Socio-Cultural Contexts. Electronic Journal of Research in Educational Psychology, 13(2), 343-368. doi: 10.14204/ejrep.36.14092
Ison, M. S., Korzeniowski, C., Segretin, M. S., & Lipina, J. S. (2015). Evaluación de la eficacia atencional en niños argentinos sin y con extraedad escolar. Revista Argentina de Ciencias del Comportamiento, 7(1), 38-52.
Ison, M. S., & Korzeniowski, C. (2016). El Rol de la Atención y Percepción Viso-Espacial en el Desempeño Lector en la Mediana Infancia. PSYKHE, 25(1), 1-13. doi:10.7764/psykhe.25.1.761
Koechlin, E., & Summerfield, C. (2007). An information theoretical aprroach to prefrontal executive fuction. Trends in Cognitive Sciences, 11(6), 229-235. doi: 10.106/j.tics.2007.04.005
Korzeniowski, C. (2015). Programa de estimulación de las funciones ejecutivas y su incidencia en el rendimiento escolar en alumnos mendocinos de escuelas primarias de zonas urbano-marginadas. (Tesis doctoral). Universidad Nacional de San Luis, Argentina.
Krikorian, R., & Bartok, J. A. (1998). Developmental data for Porteus Maze Test. The Clinical Neuropshycologist, 12(3), 305-310. doi: 10.1076/clin.12.3.305.1984
Lipina, S. J., Hermida, M. J., Segretin, M. S., Prats, L. Fracchia, C., & Colombo, J. A. (2011). Investigación en pobreza infantil desde perspectivas neurocognitivas. En S. J. Lipina y M. Sigman (Eds.), La pizarra de Babel. Puentes entre neurociencia, psicología y educación, (pp. 243-264). Buenos Aires: Libros Del Zorzal.
Lucangeli, D., & Cornoldi, C. (1997).Mathematics and Metacognition: What is the nature of the relationship? Mathematical cognition, 3(2), 121-139. doi: 10.1080/135467997387443
Marino, J. C., Fernández, A. L., & Alderete, A. M. (2001). Valores normativos y validez conceptual del test Laberintos de Porteus en una muestra de adultos argentinos. Revista de Neurología Argentina, 26, 102-107.
Matthews, J. S., Marulis, L. M., & Williford, A. P. (2014). Gender processes in school functioning and the mediating role of cognitive self-regulation. Journal of Applied Developmental Psychology, 35, 128-137. doi:10.1016/j.appdev.2014.02.003
Matute, E., Chamorro, Y., Inozemtseva, O., Barrios, O., Rosselli, M., & Ardila, A. (2008). Efecto de la edad en una tarea de planificación y organización (‘pirámide de México’) en escolares. Revista de Neurología, 47(2), 61-70.
Matute, E., Sanz, A., Gumá, E., Roselli, M., & Ardila, A. (2009). Influencia del nivel educativo de los padres, el tipo de escuela y el sexo en el desarrollo de la atención y la memoria. Revista Latinoamericana de Psicología, 41(2), 257-273. doi:1434/rlp.v41i2.380
Moffitt, T. E., Arseneault, L., Belsky, D., Dickson, N., Hancox, R. J., Harrington, H., Caspi, A. (2011). A gradient of childhood self-control predicts health, wealth, and public safety. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences (PNAS), 108, 2693-2698. doi:10.1073/pnas.1010076108.
Muñoz-Sandoval, A. F., Woodcock, R. W., Mc Grez, K. S., & Mather, N. (2005). Batería III Woodcock –Muñoz. Itsaca, IL: Riverside Publishing.
Noble, K. G., & Farah, M. J. (2013). Neurocognitive consequences of socioeconomic disparities: the intersection of cognitive neuroscience and public health. Developmental Science, 16(5), 639-640. doi: 10.1111/desc.12076.
Porteus, S. D. (2006) Laberintos de Porteus (4a ed.). Madrid: TEA Ediciones.
Roebers, C., Cimeli, P., Röthlisberger, M., & Neuenschwander, R. (2012). Executive functioning, metacognition, and self-perceived competence in elementary school children: an explorative study on their interrelations and their role for school achievement. Metacognition Learning, 7, 151-173. doi: 10.1007/s11409-012-9089-9
Röthlisberger, M., Neuenschwander, R., Cimeli, P., Michel, E., & Roebers, C. (2012). Improving executive functions in 5- and 6-year-olds: Evaluation of a small group intervention in prekindergarten and kindergarten children. Infant and Child Development, 21, 411-429. doi: 10.1002/icd.752
Segretin, M. S., Lipina, S. J., Hermida, M. J., Sheffield, T., Nelson, J. M., Espy, K. A., & Colombo, J. A. (2014). Predictors of cognitive enhancement after training in two samples of Argentinean preschoolers from diverse socioeconomic backgrounds. Frontiers in Psychology, 5, 1-20. doi: 10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00205
Stanovich, K. E. (1986). Matthew effects in reading: Some consequences of individual differences in the acquisition of literacy. Reading Research Quarterly, 21, 360-407.
Turner-Nesbitt, K., Baker-Ward, L. & Willoughby, M. L. (2013). Executive function mediates socio-economic and racial differences in early academic achievement. Early Childhood Research Quarterly, 28, 774-783. doi:10.1016/j.ecresq.2013.07.005
Welsh, J. A., Nix, R. L., Blair, C., Bierman, L., & Nelson, K. E. (2010).The Development of Cognitive Skills and Gains in Academic School Readiness for Children From Low-Income Families. Journal of Educational Psychology, 102(1), 43-53. doi: 10.1037/a0016738
Woodcock, R. W., & Muñoz-Sandoval, A. F. (1996). Batería Woodcock-Muñoz: Pruebas de aprovechamiento-Revisada. Itasca, IL: Riverside Publishing.
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