A Longitudinal Analysis of Social Skills and Adolescent Depression: A Multivariate Latent Growth Approach
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Robert Enright
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Yao, Z., & Enright, R. . (2021). A Longitudinal Analysis of Social Skills and Adolescent Depression: A Multivariate Latent Growth Approach. International Journal of Psychological Research, 14(1), 66–77. https://doi.org/10.21500/20112084.4793
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To give up copyright, the authors allow that, International Journal of Psychological Research, distribute the work more broadly, check for the reuse by others and take care of the necessary procedures for the registration and administration of copyright; at the same time, our editorial board represents the interests of the author and allows authors to re-use his work in various forms. In response to the above, authors transfer copyright to the journal, International Journal of Psychological Research. This transfer does not imply other rights which are not those of authorship (for example those that concern about patents). Likewise, preserves the authors rights to use the work integral or partially in lectures, books and courses, as well as make copies for educational purposes. Finally, the authors may use freely the tables and figures in its future work, wherever make explicit reference to the previous publication in International Journal of Psychological Research. The assignment of copyright includes both virtual rights and forms of the article to allow the editorial to disseminate the work in the manner which it deems appropriate.
The editorial board reserves the right of amendments deemed necessary in the application of the rules of publication.
Abstract
Ample research has shown that the link between social skills and adolescent depression is significant. However, how the changes in different domains of social skills influence the change in depression from early to middle adolescence remains largely unknown. To address this gap in knowledge, the current research used longitudinal data from the National Institute of Child Health and Human Development Study of Early Child Care and Youth Development (N = 1061) to examine the influences of the changes in cooperation, assertion, responsibility, and self-control on the change in depression from early to middle adolescence. Univariate latent growth modeling showed that, from early to middle adolescence, adolescents experience decreases in cooperation and assertion, increases in responsibility and depression, and stability in self-control. Multivariate latent growth modeling suggested that adolescents who had more increases in responsibility and self-control tended to experience a slower increase in depression from early to middle adolescence; while adolescents who had more decreases in cooperation and assertion tended to experience a faster increase in depression from early to middle adolescence. The results suggested that promoting adolescents social skills might be particularly salient for the prevention of adolescent depression.
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References
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Crocetti, E., Moscatelli, S., Kaniuonyt, G., Meeus, W., ukauskien, R., & Rubini, M. (2019). Developing morality, competence, and sociability in adolescence: A longitudinal study of gender differences. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 48 (5), 1009–1021. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-019-00996-2.
Elkind, D. (1978). Understanding the young adolescent. Adolescence, 13 (49), 127–134. Fehlinger, T., Stumpenhorst, M., Stenzel, N., & Rief, W. (2013). Emotion regulation is the essential skill for improving depressive symptoms. Journal of Affective Disorders, 144 (1–2), 116–122. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2012.06.015.
Feldman, J. S., Tung, I., & Lee, S. S. (2017). Social skills mediate the association of ADHD and depression in preadolescents. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 39 (1), 79–91.
Fowler, J. W., & Dell, M. L. (2004). Stages of faith and identity: Birth to teens. Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 13 (1), 17–33. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1056-4993(03)00073-7.
Gilligan, C. (1982). In a different voice: Psychological theory and womens development. Harvard University Press.
Gresham, F. M., & Elliott, S. N. (1990). The social skills rating system. American Guidance Service.
Gresham, F. M., Elliott, S. N., Vance, M. J., & Cook, C. R. (2011). Comparability of the social skills rating system to the social skills improvement system: Content and psychometric comparisons across elementary and secondary age levels. School Psychology Quarterly, 26 (1), 27–44. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0022662.
Grimm, K. J., Ram, N., & Estabrook, E. (2017). Growth modeling: Structural equation and multilevel modeling approaches. Guilford.
Gullota, T., Adams, G., & Markstrom, C. (1999). The adolescent experience (4th ed.) Academic Press.
Hallfors, D. D., Waller, M. W., Ford, C. A., Halpern, C. T., Brodish, P. H., & Iritani, B. (2004). Adolescent depression and suicide risk: Association with sex and drug behavior. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 27 (3), 224–231. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amepre.2004.06.001.
Howard, A. L., Kennedy, T. M., Macdonald, E. P., Mitchell, J. T., Sibley, M. H., Roy, A., Eugene, L., Epstein, J., Hinshaw, S., Hoza, B., Stehli, A., Swanson, J., & Stehli, A. (2019). Depression and ADHD-related risk for substance use in adolescence and early adulthood: concurrent and prospective associations in the MTA. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 47 (12), 1903–1916. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-019-00573-y.
Johnson, D., Dupuis, G., Piche, J., Clayborne, Z., & Colman, I. (2018). Adult mental health outcomes of adolescent depression: A systematic review. Depression and Anxiety, 35 (8), 700–716. https://doi.org/10.1002/da.22777.
Keating, D. (1980). Thinking processes in adolescence. In J. Adelson (Ed.),Handbook of adolescent psychology. Wiley.
Kessler, R. C., Avenevoli, S., & Merikangas, K. R. (2001). Mood disorders in children and adolescents: An epidemiologic perspective. Biological Psychiatry, 49 (12), 1002–1014. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0006-3223(01)01129-5.
Kilford, E. J., Garrett, E., & Blakemore, S. J. (2016). The development of social cognition in adolescence: An integrated perspective. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 70, 106–120. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2016.08.016.
Kohlberg, L. (1981). The philosophy of moral development: Moral stages and the idea of justice. Harper & Row.
Kovacs, M. (1992). Children’s depression inventory- short form. Multi-Health Systems. La Greca, A. M., Ehrenreich-May, J., Mufson, L., & Chan, S. (2016). Preventing adolescent social anxiety and depression and reducing peer victimization: Intervention development and open trial. Child & Youth Care Forum, 45 (6), 905–926. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10566-016-9363-0.
Lewinsohn, P. M., Hoberman, H., Teri, L., & Hautzinger, M. (1985). An integrative theory of depression. In S. Reiss & R. R. Bootzin (Eds.),Theoretical issues in behavior therapy(pp. 331359). Academic Press.
Masia Warner, C., Fisher, P. H., Shrout, P. E., Rathor, S., & Klein, R. G. (2007). Treating adolescents with social anxiety disorder in school: An attention control trial. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 48 (7), 676–686. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.2007.01737.x.
McKenzie, M., Olsson, C. A., Jorm, A. F., Romaniuk, H., & Patton, G. C. (2010). Association of adolescent symptoms of depression and anxiety with daily smoking and nicotine dependence in young adulthood: Findings from a 10year longitudinal study. Addiction, 105 (9), 1652–1659. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1360-0443.2010.03002.x.
Mergler, A., & Patton, W. (2007). Adolescents talking about personal responsibility. The Journal of Student Wellbeing, 1 (1), 57–70.
Moeller, R. W., & Seehuus, M. (2019). Loneliness as a mediator for college students’ social skills and experiences of depression and anxiety. Journal of Adolescence, 73, 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2019.03.006.
Monahan, K. C., Steinberg, L., Cauffman, E., & Mulvey, E. P. (2009). Trajectories of antisocial behavior and psychosocial maturity from adolescence to young adulthood. Developmental Psychology, 45 (6), 1654–1668. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0015862.
Muthén, B., & Muthén, L. (2012). Mplus version 7: User’s guide. Muthén & Muthén.
Nilsen, W., Karevold, E., Røysamb, E., Gustavson, K., & Mathiesen, K. S. (2013). Social skills and depressive symptoms across adolescence: Social support as a mediator in girls versus boys. Journal of Adolescence, 36 (1), 11–20. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2012.08.005.
Padilla-Walker, L. M., & Christensen, K. J. (2011). Empathy and self-regulation as mediators between parenting and adolescents’ prosocial behavior toward strangers, friends, and family. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 21 (3), 545–551. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1532-7795.2010.00695.x.
Raftery, A. E. (1995). Bayesian model selection in social research. Sociological Methodology, 25, 111–163.
Rector, R. E., Johnson, K. A., & Noyes, L. R. (2003). Sexually active teenagers are more likely to be depressed and attempt suicide. A Report of the Heritage Center for Data Analysis. The Heritage Foundation.
Reijntjes, A., Vermande, M., Thomaes, S., Goossens, F., Olthof, T., Aleva, L., & Van der Meulen, M. (2016). Narcissism, bullying, and social dominance in youth: A longitudinal analysis. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 44 (1), 63–74. https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10802-015-9974-1.
Rutter, M., Kim-Cohen, J., & Maughan, B. (2006). Continuities and discontinuities in psychopathology between childhood and adult life. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 47 (3–4), 276–295. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.2006.01614.x.
Schiltz, H. K., McVey, A. J., Dolan, B. K., Willar, K. S., Pleiss, S., Karst, J. S., Carson, A. M., Caiozzo, C., Vogt, E. M., Yund, B. D., & Van Hecke, A. V. (2018). Changes in depressive symptoms among adolescents with asd completing the peerső social skills intervention. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 48 (3), 834–843. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-017-3396-6.
Schnell, K., & Herpertz, S. C. (2018). Emotion regulation and social cognition as functional targets of mechanism-based psychotherapy in major depression with comorbid personality pathology. Journal of Personality Disorders, 32 (Supplement), 12–35.
Singh, N., Minaie, M. G., Skvarc, D. R., & Toumbourou, J. W. (2019). Impact of a secondary school depression prevention curriculum on adolescent socialemotional skills: Evaluation of the resilient families program. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 48 (6), 1100–1115. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-019-00992-6.
Sitarenios, G., & Kovacs, M. (1999). Use of the Children’s Depression Inventory. In M. E. Maruish (Ed.),The use of psychological testing for treatment planning and outcomes assessment(2nd ed.) (pp. 267-298). Erlbaum.
Stice, E., Shaw, H., Bohon, C., Marti, C. N., & Rohde, P. (2009). A meta-analytic review of depression prevention programs for children and adolescents: Factors that predict magnitude of intervention effects. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 77 (3), 486–503. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0015168.
Wilson, T. D. (2002). Strangers to ourselves: Discovering the adaptive unconscious. Harvard University Press.
Wood, D., Larson, R. W., & Brown, J. R. (2009). How adolescents come to see themselves as more responsible through participation in youth programs. Child Development, 80 (1), 295–309. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2008.01260.x.
Young, J. F., & Mufson, L. (2003). Manual for Interpersonal Psychotherapy: Adolescent Skills Training (IPT-AST)[Unpublished manuscript]. Department of Clinical Psychology, Graduate School of Applied; Professional Psychology, Rutgers University.
Yu, Z., Hao, J., & Shi, B. (2018). Dispositional envy inhibits prosocial behavior in adolescents with high self-esteem. Personality and Individual Differences, 122, 127–133. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2017.10.022.
Benjet, C., Albor, Y. C., Bocanegra, E. S., Borges, G., Méndez, E., Casanova, L., & Medina-Mora, M. E. (2020). Incidence and recurrence of depression from adolescence to early adulthood: A longitudinal follow-up of the mexican adolescent mental health survey. Journal of Affective Disorders, 263, 540–546. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2019.11.010.
Bornstein, M. H., Hahn, C. S., & Haynes, O. M. (2010). Social competence, externalizing, and internalizing behavioral adjustment from early childhood through early adolescence: Developmental cascades. Development and Psychopathology, 22 (4), 717–735. https://doi.org/10.1017/s0954579410000416.
Brooks, T. L., Harris, S. K., Thrall, J. S., & Woods, E. R. (2002). Association of adolescent risk behaviors with mental health symptoms in high school students. Journal of Adolescent health, 31 (3), 240–246. https://doi.org/10.1016/s1054-139x(02)00385-3.
Browne, M. W., & Cudeck, R. (1992). Alternative ways of assessing model fit. In K. A. Bollen & J. S. Long (Eds.),Testing structural equation models(pp. 136-162). Sage.
Burnham, K. P., & Anderson, D. R. (2004). Multimodel inference: Understanding AIC and BIC in model selection. Sociological Methods and Research, 33 (2), 261–304. https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0049124104268644.
Clayborne, Z. M., Varin, M., & I., C. (2019). Systematic review and meta-analysis: Adolescent depression and long-term psychosocial outcomes. Journal of the American Academy of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry, 58 (1), 72–79. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaac.2018.07.896.
Cohen, S., & Wills, T. A. (1985). Stress, social support, and the buffering hypothesis. Psychological Bulletin, 98 (2), 310–357. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.98.2.310.
Cole, D. A. (1991). Preliminary support for a competencybased model of depression in children. Journal of abnormal psychology, 100 (2), 181–190. https://doi.org/10.1037//0021-843x.100.2.181.
Crocetti, E., Moscatelli, S., Kaniuonyt, G., Meeus, W., ukauskien, R., & Rubini, M. (2019). Developing morality, competence, and sociability in adolescence: A longitudinal study of gender differences. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 48 (5), 1009–1021. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-019-00996-2.
Elkind, D. (1978). Understanding the young adolescent. Adolescence, 13 (49), 127–134. Fehlinger, T., Stumpenhorst, M., Stenzel, N., & Rief, W. (2013). Emotion regulation is the essential skill for improving depressive symptoms. Journal of Affective Disorders, 144 (1–2), 116–122. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2012.06.015.
Feldman, J. S., Tung, I., & Lee, S. S. (2017). Social skills mediate the association of ADHD and depression in preadolescents. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 39 (1), 79–91.
Fowler, J. W., & Dell, M. L. (2004). Stages of faith and identity: Birth to teens. Child and Adolescent Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 13 (1), 17–33. https://doi.org/10.1016/S1056-4993(03)00073-7.
Gilligan, C. (1982). In a different voice: Psychological theory and womens development. Harvard University Press.
Gresham, F. M., & Elliott, S. N. (1990). The social skills rating system. American Guidance Service.
Gresham, F. M., Elliott, S. N., Vance, M. J., & Cook, C. R. (2011). Comparability of the social skills rating system to the social skills improvement system: Content and psychometric comparisons across elementary and secondary age levels. School Psychology Quarterly, 26 (1), 27–44. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0022662.
Grimm, K. J., Ram, N., & Estabrook, E. (2017). Growth modeling: Structural equation and multilevel modeling approaches. Guilford.
Gullota, T., Adams, G., & Markstrom, C. (1999). The adolescent experience (4th ed.) Academic Press.
Hallfors, D. D., Waller, M. W., Ford, C. A., Halpern, C. T., Brodish, P. H., & Iritani, B. (2004). Adolescent depression and suicide risk: Association with sex and drug behavior. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 27 (3), 224–231. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.amepre.2004.06.001.
Howard, A. L., Kennedy, T. M., Macdonald, E. P., Mitchell, J. T., Sibley, M. H., Roy, A., Eugene, L., Epstein, J., Hinshaw, S., Hoza, B., Stehli, A., Swanson, J., & Stehli, A. (2019). Depression and ADHD-related risk for substance use in adolescence and early adulthood: concurrent and prospective associations in the MTA. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 47 (12), 1903–1916. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10802-019-00573-y.
Johnson, D., Dupuis, G., Piche, J., Clayborne, Z., & Colman, I. (2018). Adult mental health outcomes of adolescent depression: A systematic review. Depression and Anxiety, 35 (8), 700–716. https://doi.org/10.1002/da.22777.
Keating, D. (1980). Thinking processes in adolescence. In J. Adelson (Ed.),Handbook of adolescent psychology. Wiley.
Kessler, R. C., Avenevoli, S., & Merikangas, K. R. (2001). Mood disorders in children and adolescents: An epidemiologic perspective. Biological Psychiatry, 49 (12), 1002–1014. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0006-3223(01)01129-5.
Kilford, E. J., Garrett, E., & Blakemore, S. J. (2016). The development of social cognition in adolescence: An integrated perspective. Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, 70, 106–120. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neubiorev.2016.08.016.
Kohlberg, L. (1981). The philosophy of moral development: Moral stages and the idea of justice. Harper & Row.
Kovacs, M. (1992). Children’s depression inventory- short form. Multi-Health Systems. La Greca, A. M., Ehrenreich-May, J., Mufson, L., & Chan, S. (2016). Preventing adolescent social anxiety and depression and reducing peer victimization: Intervention development and open trial. Child & Youth Care Forum, 45 (6), 905–926. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10566-016-9363-0.
Lewinsohn, P. M., Hoberman, H., Teri, L., & Hautzinger, M. (1985). An integrative theory of depression. In S. Reiss & R. R. Bootzin (Eds.),Theoretical issues in behavior therapy(pp. 331359). Academic Press.
Masia Warner, C., Fisher, P. H., Shrout, P. E., Rathor, S., & Klein, R. G. (2007). Treating adolescents with social anxiety disorder in school: An attention control trial. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 48 (7), 676–686. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.2007.01737.x.
McKenzie, M., Olsson, C. A., Jorm, A. F., Romaniuk, H., & Patton, G. C. (2010). Association of adolescent symptoms of depression and anxiety with daily smoking and nicotine dependence in young adulthood: Findings from a 10year longitudinal study. Addiction, 105 (9), 1652–1659. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1360-0443.2010.03002.x.
Mergler, A., & Patton, W. (2007). Adolescents talking about personal responsibility. The Journal of Student Wellbeing, 1 (1), 57–70.
Moeller, R. W., & Seehuus, M. (2019). Loneliness as a mediator for college students’ social skills and experiences of depression and anxiety. Journal of Adolescence, 73, 1–13. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2019.03.006.
Monahan, K. C., Steinberg, L., Cauffman, E., & Mulvey, E. P. (2009). Trajectories of antisocial behavior and psychosocial maturity from adolescence to young adulthood. Developmental Psychology, 45 (6), 1654–1668. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0015862.
Muthén, B., & Muthén, L. (2012). Mplus version 7: User’s guide. Muthén & Muthén.
Nilsen, W., Karevold, E., Røysamb, E., Gustavson, K., & Mathiesen, K. S. (2013). Social skills and depressive symptoms across adolescence: Social support as a mediator in girls versus boys. Journal of Adolescence, 36 (1), 11–20. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.adolescence.2012.08.005.
Padilla-Walker, L. M., & Christensen, K. J. (2011). Empathy and self-regulation as mediators between parenting and adolescents’ prosocial behavior toward strangers, friends, and family. Journal of Research on Adolescence, 21 (3), 545–551. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1532-7795.2010.00695.x.
Raftery, A. E. (1995). Bayesian model selection in social research. Sociological Methodology, 25, 111–163.
Rector, R. E., Johnson, K. A., & Noyes, L. R. (2003). Sexually active teenagers are more likely to be depressed and attempt suicide. A Report of the Heritage Center for Data Analysis. The Heritage Foundation.
Reijntjes, A., Vermande, M., Thomaes, S., Goossens, F., Olthof, T., Aleva, L., & Van der Meulen, M. (2016). Narcissism, bullying, and social dominance in youth: A longitudinal analysis. Journal of Abnormal Child Psychology, 44 (1), 63–74. https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10802-015-9974-1.
Rutter, M., Kim-Cohen, J., & Maughan, B. (2006). Continuities and discontinuities in psychopathology between childhood and adult life. Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry, 47 (3–4), 276–295. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1469-7610.2006.01614.x.
Schiltz, H. K., McVey, A. J., Dolan, B. K., Willar, K. S., Pleiss, S., Karst, J. S., Carson, A. M., Caiozzo, C., Vogt, E. M., Yund, B. D., & Van Hecke, A. V. (2018). Changes in depressive symptoms among adolescents with asd completing the peerső social skills intervention. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 48 (3), 834–843. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10803-017-3396-6.
Schnell, K., & Herpertz, S. C. (2018). Emotion regulation and social cognition as functional targets of mechanism-based psychotherapy in major depression with comorbid personality pathology. Journal of Personality Disorders, 32 (Supplement), 12–35.
Singh, N., Minaie, M. G., Skvarc, D. R., & Toumbourou, J. W. (2019). Impact of a secondary school depression prevention curriculum on adolescent socialemotional skills: Evaluation of the resilient families program. Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 48 (6), 1100–1115. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10964-019-00992-6.
Sitarenios, G., & Kovacs, M. (1999). Use of the Children’s Depression Inventory. In M. E. Maruish (Ed.),The use of psychological testing for treatment planning and outcomes assessment(2nd ed.) (pp. 267-298). Erlbaum.
Stice, E., Shaw, H., Bohon, C., Marti, C. N., & Rohde, P. (2009). A meta-analytic review of depression prevention programs for children and adolescents: Factors that predict magnitude of intervention effects. Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 77 (3), 486–503. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0015168.
Wilson, T. D. (2002). Strangers to ourselves: Discovering the adaptive unconscious. Harvard University Press.
Wood, D., Larson, R. W., & Brown, J. R. (2009). How adolescents come to see themselves as more responsible through participation in youth programs. Child Development, 80 (1), 295–309. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-8624.2008.01260.x.
Young, J. F., & Mufson, L. (2003). Manual for Interpersonal Psychotherapy: Adolescent Skills Training (IPT-AST)[Unpublished manuscript]. Department of Clinical Psychology, Graduate School of Applied; Professional Psychology, Rutgers University.
Yu, Z., Hao, J., & Shi, B. (2018). Dispositional envy inhibits prosocial behavior in adolescents with high self-esteem. Personality and Individual Differences, 122, 127–133. http://doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2017.10.022.
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