Dimensions

PlumX

How to Cite
Rosa, P. (2015). What do your eyes say? Bridging eye movements to consumer behavior. International Journal of Psychological Research, 8(2), 91–104. https://doi.org/10.21500/20112084.1513
License terms
The work that is sent to this journal must be original, not published or sent to be published elsewhere; and if it is accepted for publication, authors will agree to transfer copyright to International Journal of Psychological Research. 

To give up copyright, the authors allow that, International Journal of Psychological Research, distribute the work more broadly, check for the reuse by others and take care of the necessary procedures for the registration and administration of copyright; at the same time, our editorial board represents the interests of the author and allows authors to re-use his work in various forms. In response to the above, authors transfer copyright to the journal, International Journal of Psychological Research. This transfer does not imply other rights which are not those of authorship (for example those that concern about patents). Likewise, preserves the authors rights to use the work integral or partially in lectures, books and courses, as well as make copies for educational purposes. Finally, the authors may use freely the tables and figures in its future work, wherever make explicit reference to the previous publication in International Journal of Psychological Research. The assignment of copyright includes both virtual rights and forms of the article to allow the editorial to disseminate the work in the manner which it deems appropriate. 

The editorial board reserves the right of amendments deemed necessary in the application of the rules of publication.

Abstract

Eye tracking (ET) is a technique that has been progressively employed to study the influence of visual stimuli on attentional processes and consumer behavior. The goals of the present theoretical article are fourfold and are based on an extensive literature revision,. First, a brief historical review of ET methodology is introduced, presenting the evolution of ET techniques from the ancient proto-eye trackers to the “fresh” state-of-theart eye ET devices. Second, the basics of ET are clarified through a simplified technical and mathematical explanation. Third, the triad eye movement-attention-consumer behavior is made clear, grounded on attention, interest, desire, and action (AIDA) theoretical model. Fourth, the most used oculometrics in marketing studies are explained and distinguished The present article addresses a number of technical and methodological issues by discussing challenges involved in ET systems and giving some guidelines for those who intend to apply ET to infer cognitive and emotional processes.

Keywords:

References

Afonso, R., Colaço, N, Sargento, P., & Rosa, P. (2011).
Processo de Tomada de Decisão no Feminino:
O ciclo menstrual como mediador. In F.
Rodrigues, A influência do Neuromarketing e a
tomada decisão (pp. 117-137). Viseu:
Psicosoma.
Ahrens, A. (1891). Die Bewegung der Augen beim
Schreiben. Rostock: University of Rostock.
Armstrong, T., & Olatunji, B. O. (2012). Eye tracking of
attention in the affective disorders: A metaanalytic
review and synthesis. Clinical
Psychology Review, 32, 704-723.
Banović, M., Rosa, P., J., & Gamito, P. (2014). Eye of
the beholder: Visual search, attention and
product choice. In P. Gamito and P.J. Rosa, I
see me, you see me: inferring cognitive and
emotional processes from gazing behavior (pp.
40-61). Newcastle upon Tyne: Cambridge
Scholars Publishing.
Bhaskar, T., Foo Tun K., Ranganath, S., & Venkatesh,
Y. (2003). Blink detection and Eye Tracking for
eye localization. Conference on Convergent
Technologies for Asia-Pacific Region:
TENCON’03; 15–17 Oct 2003; Bangalore, IN;
2003. pp 821–824.
Bridgeman, B. (1992). Conscious vs unconscious
processes: The case of vision. Theory and
Psychology, 2(1), 73-88
Buswell, G. T. (1935). How people look at pictures.
Chicago: University of Chicago Press.
Calvo, M., & Lang, P. (2004). Gaze Patterns When
Looking at Emotional Pictures: Motivationally
Biased Attention. Motivation and Emotion,
28(3), 221–243.
Chandon, P., Hutchinson, J., Bradlow, E., & Young, S.
(2009). Does In-Store Marketing Work? Effects
of the Number and Position of Shelf Facings on
Brand Attention and Evaluation at the Point of
Purchase. Journal of Marketing, 73(6), 1-17.
Cheal, M., & Lyon, D. R. (1991). Central and peripheral
precueing of forced-choice discrimination.
Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology,
43A, 859–880.
Coulson, N. (2000). An application of the stages of
change model to consumer use of food labels.
British Food Journal, 102, 9, 661-8.
Crane, H. D. (1994). The Purkinje Image Eyetracker,
Image Stabilization, and Related Forms of
Stimulus Manipulation. In D. H. Kelly (Ed.),
Visual Science and Engineering: Models and
Applications (pp. 13–89). New York: Marcel
Dekker.
Dalmaijer E. (2014) Is the low-cost EyeTribe eye
tracker any good for research? PeerJ
PrePrints, 2, 1-35. Retrieved from
https://peerj.com/preprints/585v1.pdf
Damásio, A. (2003). Looking for Spinoza: Joy, Sorrow,
and the Feeling Brain. Harcourt. Orlando, FL.
Delabarre, E.B. (1898) A method for recording eyemovements.
The American Journal of
Psychology, 9, 572–574.
Dodge, R., & Cline, T.S. (1901). The angle velocity of
eye movements. Psychological Review, 8,
145–157.
Duchowski, A. (2007). Eye Tracking Methodology:
Theory and Practice (2nd ed.). London:
Springer-Verlag.
Elling, S., Lentz, L., & De Jong, M. (2011).
Retrospective think-aloud method: Using eye
movements as an extra cue for participants'
R E V I E W
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH Bridging Eye Movements
Rosa (2015) Int.j.psychol.res. 8 (2) PP. 90 - 103
102
verbalizations. Proceedings of the 2011 Annual
Conference on Human Factors in Computing
Systems, 1161- 1170. New York, USA: ACM
Ferreira, P., Rita, P., Morais, D, Rosa, P, Oliveira, J.,
Gamito, P., Santos, N., Soares, F., &
Sottomayor, C., (2011). Grabbing attention
while reading website pages: the influence of
verbal emotional cues in advertising. Journal of
Eye Tracking, Visual Cognition and Emotion,
1(1), 64-68.
Fitts, P., Jones, R., & Milton, J., (1950). Eye movements
of aircraft pilots during instrument-landing
approaches. Aeroautical Engineering Review,
9(2), 24-29.
Friedburg, C., Allen, C.P., Mason, P.J., Lamb, T.D.,
2004. Contribution of con photoreceptors and
post-receptoral mechanisms to the human
photopic electroretinogram. Journal of
Physiology, 556, 819–843.
Gamito, P. & Rosa, P.J. (2014). I see me, you see me:
inferring cognitive and emotional processes
from gazing behavior. Newcastle upon Tyne:
Cambridge Scholars Publishing.
Goldberg, H. J., & Kotval, X. P. (1999). Computer
interface evaluation using eye movements:
Methods and constructs. International Journal
of Industrial Ergonomics, 24, 631-645.
Goldberg, H. J., & Wichansky, A. M. (2003). Eye
Tracking in usability evaluation: A practitioner’s
guide. In J. Hyönä, R. Radach, & H. Deubel
(Eds.), The mind's eye: Cognitive and applied
aspects of eye movement research (pp. 493-
516). Amsterdam: Elsevier.
Hess, E. H. (1972). Pupillometrics: A method of
studying mental, emotional, and sensory
processes. In N. S. Greenfield, & R. A.
Sternbach (Eds.), Handbook of
Psychophysiology (pp. 491-531). New York:
Holt, Rinehart & Winston.
Holmqvist, K., Nyström, M., Andersson, R., Dewhurst,
R., Jarodzka, H., & Van de Weijer, J. (2011).
Eye Tracking: a comprehensive guide to
methods and measures. Oxford, UK: Oxford
University Press.
Huey, E. B. (1898). Preliminary experiments in the
physiology and psychology of reading.
American Journal of Psychology, 9, 575-586.
Hyrskykari, A., Ovaska, S., Majaranta, P., Räihä, K.-J.
& Lehtinen, M. (2008). Gaze Path Stimulation
in Retrospective Think-Aloud. Journal of Eye
Movement Research, 2(4), 1-18.
Jacob, R. J. K., & Karn, K. S. (2003). Eye Tracking in
Human-Computer Interaction and usability
research: Ready to deliver the promises, In J.
Hyönä, R. Radach, & H. Deubel (Eds.), The
mind's eye: Cognitive and applied aspects of
eye movement research (pp. 573-605).
Amsterdam: Elsevier.
James, W. (1890). The principles of Psychology (Vol 1).
New York, NY: Henry Holt & Co.
Javal, L.(1878). Essai sur la physiologie de la lecture.
Annales d'Oculistique, 79, 97-117.
Johansen, S. A., & Hansen, J. P. (2006). Do We Need
Eye Trackers to Tell Where People Look? In
CHI ’06 Extended Abstracts on Human Factors
in Computing Systems (pp. 923–928). New
York, NY, USA: ACM.
Judd, C., McAlliste, C. & Steel, W. (1905). General
introduction to a series of studies with eye
movements by means of Kinetoscopic
photografs. Psychological Review, Monograph
supplements, 7, 1-16
Just, M. A. & Carpenter, P. A. (1976). Eye fixations and
cognitive processes. Cognitive Psychology, 8,
441-480.
Just, M. A. & Carpenter, P. A. (1980). A theory of
reading: From eye fixations to
comprehension. Psychological Review, 87(4),
329-354.
Kahneman, D., & Henik, A. (1981). Perceptual
organization and attention. In M. Kubovy & J.
R. Pomerantz (Eds.), Perceptual organization
(pp. 181–211). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.
Koch, C., & Ullman, S. (1985). Shifts in selective visual
attention: Towards the underlying neural
circuitry. Human Neurobiology, 4, 219–227.
Lahiri, U., Warren, Z., & Sarkar, N. (2011). Design of a
Gaze-Sensitive Virtual Social Interactive
System for Children With Autism. Neural
Systems and Rehabilitation Engineering, IEEE
Transactions on, 19(4), 443–452.
Land, M. (1999). Motion and vision: why animals move
their eyes. Journal of Comparative Physiology
A, 185, 341–352.
Land, M., & Hayhoe, M. (2001). In what ways do eye
movements contribute to everyday activities.
Vision Research, 41, 3559–3565.
Mele, M., & Federici S. (2012) Gaze and eye-tracking
solutions for psychological research. Cognitive
Processing,, 13(1), 261-165
Moore, G. (1965). Cramming more components onto
integrated circuits. Electronics, 38(8), 114-117.
Morin, E. (1987). O método III: o conhecimento do
conhecimento. Lisboa: Europa-América.
Nummenmaa, L., Hyönä, J., & Calvo, M. G. (2006). Eye
movement assessment of selective attentional
R E V I E W
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH Bridging Eye Movements
Rosa (2015) Int.j.psychol.res. 8 (2) PP. 90 - 103
103
capture by emotional pictures. Emotion, 6(2),
257–68.
Öhman, A., Flykt, A., & Esteves, F. (2001). Emotion
drives attention: Detecting the snake in the
grass. Journal of Experimental Psychology:
General, 130(3), 466-478.
Paivio, A. (1991). Dual Coding Theory: Retrospect and
current status. Canadian Journal of
Psychology, 45(3), 255-287.
Partala, T., & Surakka, V. (2003). Pupil Size Variation
as an Indication of Affective Processing.
International Journal of Human Computer
Studies, 59(1-2), 185-198.
Porter, G., Troscianko, T., & Gilchrist, I.D. (2007). Effort
during visual search and counting: insights
from pupillometry. Quarterly Journal of
Experimental Psychology, 60, 211-229.
Porterfield, W. (1737). An essay concerning the
motions of our eyes. Part I. Of their external
motions. Edinburgh Medical Essays and
Observations, 3, 160-263.
Posner, M. I. (1980). Orienting of attention. Quarterly
Journal of Experimental Psychology, 32, 3–25.
Rayner, K. (1998). Eye movements in reading and
information processing: 20 years of research.
Psychological Bulletin, 124(3), 372–422.
Rayner, K., & Castelhano, M.S. (2007). Eye
movements during reading, scene perception,
visual search, and while looking at print
advertisements. In M. Wedel & R. Pieters
(Eds.), Visual Marketing: From attention to
action. (pp. 9-42). Lawrence Erlbaum: New
Jersey, USA.
Rayner, K., & Pollatsek, A. (1989). The psychology of
reading. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Rosa, P. J., Caires, C., Costa, L. , Rodelo, L., & Pinto,
L. (2014) . Affective And Psychophysiological
Responses To Erotic Stimuli: Does Color
Matter? In P. Gamito and P.J. Rosa, I see me,
you see me: inferring cognitive and emotional
processes from gazing behavior (pp. 171-190).
Newcastle upon Tyne: Cambridge Scholars
Publishing
Rosa, P.J., Esteves, F. & Arriaga (2010). Attention and
physiological responses to biologically relevant
stimuli: An eye-tracking study using subliminal
procedures. Psychophysiology, 47, S99
Rosa, P. J., Esteves, F. & Arriaga, P. (2012). Ver ou
não ver, eis a questão. A relação entre a
emoção e a atenção visual seletiva. In-Mind
3(1-4), 9-18.
Rosa, P. J., Esteves, F., & Arriaga (2014). Effects of
fear-relevant stimuli on attention: integrating
gaze data with subliminal exposure.
Proceedings of IEEE International Symposium
on Medical Measurements and Applications, 1
, 8-14.
Rosa, P. J., Esteves, F. & Arriaga, P. (in press). Beyond
traditional clinical measurements for screening
fears and phobias. IEEE Transactions on
Instrumentation and Measurement.
Rosa, P J., Gamito, P., Oliveira, J., & Morais, D. (2011).
Attentional orienting to biologically fearrelevant
stimuli: data from Eye Tracking using
the continual alternation flicker paradigm.
Journal of Eye Tracking, Visual Cognition and
Emotion, 1(1), 22-29.
Rosa, P & Morais, D. (2011). O homo emocionalis e a
tomada de decisão: a irracionalidade da
escolha. In F. Rodrigues, A influência do
Neuromarketing e a tomada decisão (pp. 77-
95). Viseu: Psicosoma.
Schwarz, N. (1999). Self-reports: How the questions
shape the answers. American Psychologist,
54(2), 93–105.
Scott. W. (1908). The Psychology of Advertising: A
Simple Exposition of the Principles of
Psychology in Their Relation to Successful
Advertising. Boston: Small, Maynard and
Company.
Schütz, A., Braun, D., & Gegenfurtner, K. (2011). Eye
movements and perception: A selective review.
Journal of Vision, 11(9), 1-30.
Spielberger, C. (2004). Encyclopedia of Applied
Psychology (1st ed). Oxford: Elsevier.
Steinman, R. (2003). Gaze control under natural
conditions. In: Chalupa, L.M., Werner, J.S.
(Eds.). The Visual Neurosciences. MIT Press,
Cambridge MA, pp. 1339–1356.
Steinhauer, S., Boller, F., Zubin, J., & Pearlman, S.
(1983). Pupillary dilation to emotional visual
stimuli revisited. Psychophysiology, 20, 472.
Steinhauer, S., Siegle, G., Condray, R., & Pless, M.
(2004). Sympathetic And parasympathetic
innervation of pupillary dilation during
sustained processing. International Journal of
Psychophysiology, 52, 77–86.
Underwood, G., & Foulsham, T. (2006). Visual saliency
and semantic incongruency influence eye
movements when inspecting pictures.
Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology,
59 (11), 1931 – 1949.
Thornton, T.L. & Gilden, D.L. (2007). Parallel and Serial
Processes in Visual Search. Psychological
Review, 114(1), 71-103.
R E V I E W
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH Bridging Eye Movements
Rosa (2015) Int.j.psychol.res. 8 (2) PP. 90 - 103
104
Treue, S. (2001). Neural correlates of attention in
primate visual cortex. Trends in
Neurosciences, 24, 295-300.
Voßkühler, A., Nordmeier, V., Kuchinke, L., & Jacobs,
A.M. (2008). OGAMA -
OpenGazeAndMouseAnalyzer: Open source
software designed to analyze eye and mouse
movements in slideshow study designs.
Behavior Research Methods, 40(4), 1150-
1162.
Warde, A. (1999). Convenience food: space and timing,
British Food Journal, 101(7) 518-27.
Wedel, M., & Pieters, R. (2006). Eye Tracking for visual
marketing. Foundations and Trends in
Marketing, 1(4), 231-320.
Yantis, S. (1988). On analog movements of visual
attention. Perception Psychophysics, 43, 203–
206.
Yarbus, A. (1967). Eye movements during perception
of complex objects. In: L. Riggs (ed.) Eye
Movements and Vision (pp. 171-196). New
York: Plenum Press.
Young, L., & Sheena, D. (1975). Methods and designs:
Survey of eye movement recording methods.
Behavior Research Methods and Instruments,
7, 397-429.
Zhiwei, Z., & Qiang, J. (2007). Novel Eye Tracking
techniques under natural head movement.
IEEE Transactions on Biomedical Enginnering,
54(12), 2246–2260.

Downloads

Download data is not yet available.

Cited by