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Correia, M. E., & Rosado, A. (2019). Anxiety in Athletes: Gender and Type of Sport Differences. International Journal of Psychological Research, 12(1), 9–17. https://doi.org/10.21500/20112084.3552
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To give up copyright, the authors allow that, International Journal of Psychological Research, distribute the work more broadly, check for the reuse by others and take care of the necessary procedures for the registration and administration of copyright; at the same time, our editorial board represents the interests of the author and allows authors to re-use his work in various forms. In response to the above, authors transfer copyright to the journal, International Journal of Psychological Research. This transfer does not imply other rights which are not those of authorship (for example those that concern about patents). Likewise, preserves the authors rights to use the work integral or partially in lectures, books and courses, as well as make copies for educational purposes. Finally, the authors may use freely the tables and figures in its future work, wherever make explicit reference to the previous publication in International Journal of Psychological Research. The assignment of copyright includes both virtual rights and forms of the article to allow the editorial to disseminate the work in the manner which it deems appropriate.
The editorial board reserves the right of amendments deemed necessary in the application of the rules of publication.
Abstract
The study of anxiety, specifically its relations with sociodemographic variables, has been fruitfull in sport psychology research. This study aimed to investigate athletes’ sport anxiety regarding differences in gender and sport played. An application of structural equation modeling was made, with 601 Portuguese athletes. From them 172 (28.6%) were female and 429 (71.4%) were male. They competed in a variety of individual (e.g., athletics, climbing, orienteering, surfing, swimming, tennis; 42.6%) and team sports (e.g., basketball, handball, rugby, soccer, volleyball; 57.4%). Participants’ age ranged from 12 to 47 years (M = 17.44 years; SD = 4.99). After testing the measurement invariance of the first and second-order models, across gender and type of sport (individual vs. team), latent mean comparisons were investigated and Cohen’s d (1988) statistic was computed to obtain the corresponding effect sizes (Kline, 2016). Significant differences were detected between male and female athletes and between individual and team sports. Female and individual sports athletes presented higher levels of general sports anxiety. The results of this research provided evidence that anxiety is appraised differently by athletes based on their gender and type of sport.
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References
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Byrne, B. M. (2010). Structural equation modeling with Amos: Basic concepts, applications, and programming (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Taylor and Francis Group.
Chen, F. F., Sousa, K. H., & West, S. G. (2005). Teacher’s corner: Testing measurement invariance of second-order factor models. Structural equation modeling, 12(3), 471-492. doi:10.1207/s15328007sem1203_7
Cheung, G. W., & Rensvold, R. B. (2002). Evaluating goodness-of-fit indexes for testing measurement invariance. Structural equation modeling, 9(2), 233-255. doi:10.1207/S15328007SEM0902_5
Clifton, R. T., & Gill, D. L. (1994). Gender differences in self-confidence on a feminine-typed task. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 16(2), 150–162. doi:10.1123/jsep.16.2.150
Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences (2nd ed.). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Earlbaum Associates.
Correia, M. E., & Rosado, A. (2018). Fear of failure and anxiety in sport. Análise Psicológica, 36(1), 75-86. doi:10.14417/ap.1193
Cruz, J. F., & Gomes, A. R. (2007). Escala de Ansiedade no Desporto (EAD-2)–Versão para investigação [The Sport Anxiety Scale-2]. Braga: Universidade do Minho.
Deng, L., & Yuan, K. H. (2016). Comparing latent means without mean structure models: a projection-based approach. Psychometrika, 81(3), 802-829. doi:10.1007/s11336-015-9491-8
Dias, C., Cruz, J., & Fonseca, A. (2010). Coping Strategies, Multidimensional Competitive Anxiety and Cognitive Threat Appraisal: Differences across sex age and type of sport. Serbian Journal of Sports Sciences, 4(1), 23-31. Recovered of: https://repositorium.sdum.uminho.pt/handle/1822/16596
Dunn, J. G., Dunn, J. C., Wilson, P., & Syrotuik, D. G. (2000). Reexamining the factorial composition and factor structure of the Sport Anxiety Scale. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 22(2), 183-193. doi:10.1123/jsep.22.2.183
Gill, D., Williams, L., & Reifsteck, E. (2017). Psychological Dynamics of Sport and Exercise.United States: Human Kinetics.
Guillén, F., & Laborde, S. (2014). Higher-order structure of mental toughness and the analysis of latent mean differences between athletes from 34 disciplines and non-athletes. Personality and Individual Differences, 60, 30-35. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2013.11.019
Grossbard, J. R., Smith, R. E., Smoll, F. L., & Cumming, S. P. (2009). Competitive anxiety in young athletes: Differentiating somatic anxiety, worry, and concentration disruption. Anxiety, Stress, and Coping, 22(2), 153–166. doi:10.1080/10615800802020643
Hair, J. F., Black, W. C., Babin, B. J., Anderson, R. E., & Tatham, R. L. (2009). Análise multivariada de dados. Bookman Editora.
Hamidi, S., & Besharat, M. A. (2010). Perfectionism and competitive anxiety in athletes. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 5, 813-817. doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2010.07.190
Hanton, S., Neil, R., Mellalieu, S. D., & Fletcher, D. (2008). Competitive experience and performance status: An investigation into multidimensional anxiety and coping. European Journal of Sport Science, 8(3), 143-152. doi:10.1080/17461390801987984
Hu, L. T., & Bentler, P. M. (1999). Cutoff Criteria for Fit Indexes in Covariance Structure Analysis: Conventional Criteria Versus New Alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling: a multidisciplinary journal, 6(1), 1-55. doi:10.1080/10705519909540118
Jones, J. G., & Cale, A. (1989). Relationships between multidimensional competitive state anxiety and cognitive and motor subcomponents of performance. Journal of Sports Sciences, 7(3), 229-240. doi:10.1080/02640418908729843
Kirkby, R. J., & Liu, J. (1999). Precompetition anxiety in Chinese athletes. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 88(1), 297-303. doi:10.2466/pms.1999.88.1.297
Koehn, S. (2013). Effects of confidence and anxiety on flow state in competition. European journal of sport science, 13(5), 543-550. doi:10.1080/17461391.2012.746731
Kline, R. B. (2016). Principles and practice of structural equation modeling (4th ed.). New York: The Guilford Press.
Kristjánsdóttir, H., Erlingsdóttir, A. V., Sveinsson, G., & Saavedra, J. M. (2018). Psychological skills, mental toughness and anxiety in elite handball players. Personality and Individual Differences, 134, 125-130. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2018.06.011
Liu, W., Lei, H., Li, L., Yi, J., Zhong, M.,Yang, Y., & Zhu, X. (2015). Factorial invariance of the mood and anxiety symptom questionnaire-short form across gender. Personality and Individual Differences, 87, 136-140. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2015.07.036
Loehlin, J. C. (2003). Latent variable models: An introduction to factor, path, and structural equation analysis (4th ed.). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Marôco J. (2010). [Structural equation modeling: Theoretical foundations, software and aplications]. Lisboa, Portugal: Report Number, 374 p. Portuguese.
Marsh, H. W., Hau, K.-T., & Grayson, D. (2005). Goodness of Fit in Structural Equation Models. In A. Maydeu-Olivares & J. J. McArdle (Eds.), Multivariate applications book series. Contemporary psychometrics: A festschrift for Roderick P. McDonald(pp. 275-340). Mahwah, NJ, US: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers.
Martens, R. Vealey, R. S., & Burton, D. (1990). Competitive anxiety in sport. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
Newsom, J. (2005). Practical approaches to dealing with nonnormal and categorical variables.
Nunnally, J. C., & Bernstein, I. H. (1994). Psychometric theory. New York, NY: McGraw Hill.
O’Donoghue, P., & Neil, R. (2015). Relative age effect on behavioural regulation, burnout potential and anxiety of sports students. European Journal of Human Movement, 35, 1-11. Recovered of: https://repository.cardiffmet.ac.uk/handle/10369/7840
Perry, J. D., & Williams, J. M. (1998). Relationship of intensity and direction of competitive trait anxiety to skill level and gender in tennis. The Sport Psychologist, 12(2), 169-179. doi:10.1123/tsp.12.2.169
Prapavessis, H., Maddison, R., & Fletcher, R. (2005). Further examination of the factor integrity of the Sport Anxiety Scale. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 27(2), 253-260. doi:10.1123/jsep.27.2.253
Ramis, Y., Viladrich, C., Sousa, C., & Jannes, C. (2015). Exploring the factorial structure of the Sport Anxiety Scale-2: Invariance across language, gender, age and type of sport. Psicothema, 27(2), 174-181. doi:10.7334/psicothema2014.263
Ramis, Y., Torregosa, M., Viladrich, C. y Cruz, J. (2010). Adaptación y validación de la versión española de la Escala de Ansiedad Competitiva SAS-2 para deportista de iniciación. Psicothema, 22(4), 1004-1009. Recovered of: https://www.redalyc.org/pdf/727/72715515070.pdf
Smith, R. E., Smoll, F. L., Cumming, S. P., & Grossbard, J. R. (2006). Measurement of multidimensional sport performance anxiety in children and adults: The Sport Anxiety Scale-2. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 28, 479-501. doi:10.1123/jsep.28.4.479
Smith, R.E., Smoll, F.L., & Schutz, R.W. (1990). Measurement and correlates of sport-specific cognitive and somatic trait anxiety: The Sport Anxiety Scale. Anxiety Research, 2, 263-280. doi:10.1080/08917779008248733
Stenling, A., Hassmén, P., & Holmström, S. (2014). Implicit beliefs of ability, approach-avoidance goals and cognitive anxiety among team sport athletes. European journal of sport science, 14(7), 720-729. doi:10.1080/17461391.2014.901419
Terry, P. C., Cox, J. A., Lane, A. M., & Karageorghis, C. I. (1996). Measures of anxiety among tennis players in singles and doubles matches. Perceptual and motor skills, 83(2), 595-603. doi:10.2466/pms.1996.83.2.595
Tsaousis, I., & Kasi, S. (2013). Factorial invariance and latent mean differences of scores on trait emotional intelligence across gender and age. Personality and Individual Differences, 54(2), 169-173. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2012.08.016
Turman, P. D. (2003). Coaches and cohesion: The impact of coaching techniques on team cohesion in the small group sport setting. Journal of Sport Behaviour, 26(1), 86-104.
Vandenberg, R. J., & Lance, C. E. (2000). A review and synthesis of the measurement invariance literature: Suggestions, practices, and recommendations for organizational research. Organizational Research Methods, 3(1), 4-70. doi:10.1177/109442810031002
Vaughn, B., Lee, H-Y, & Kamata, A. (2012). Reliability. In G. Tenenbaum, R. Eklund, & A. Kamatato (Eds.), Measurement in sport and exercise psychology (pp. 25-32) Champaign, IL, Human Kinetics.
Bentler, P. M. (1990). Comparative fit indexes in structural models. Psychological Bulletin, 107(2), 238-246. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.107.2.238
Bentler, P. M., & Wu, E. J. C. (1993). EQS/Windows user’s guide. Los Angeles: BMDP Statistical Software.
Blunch, N. J. (2008). Introduction to structural equation modeling using SPSS and AMOS. Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE.
Bollen, K. A., & Stine, R. A. (1993). Bootstrapping Goodness-of-Fit Measures in Structural Equation Models In Bollen, K. Long, J., Testing Structural Equation Models, 111-135. Sage Focus Edition, Newbury Park, CA.
Byrne, B. M. (2010). Structural equation modeling with Amos: Basic concepts, applications, and programming (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Taylor and Francis Group.
Chen, F. F., Sousa, K. H., & West, S. G. (2005). Teacher’s corner: Testing measurement invariance of second-order factor models. Structural equation modeling, 12(3), 471-492. doi:10.1207/s15328007sem1203_7
Cheung, G. W., & Rensvold, R. B. (2002). Evaluating goodness-of-fit indexes for testing measurement invariance. Structural equation modeling, 9(2), 233-255. doi:10.1207/S15328007SEM0902_5
Clifton, R. T., & Gill, D. L. (1994). Gender differences in self-confidence on a feminine-typed task. Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 16(2), 150–162. doi:10.1123/jsep.16.2.150
Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences (2nd ed.). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Earlbaum Associates.
Correia, M. E., & Rosado, A. (2018). Fear of failure and anxiety in sport. Análise Psicológica, 36(1), 75-86. doi:10.14417/ap.1193
Cruz, J. F., & Gomes, A. R. (2007). Escala de Ansiedade no Desporto (EAD-2)–Versão para investigação [The Sport Anxiety Scale-2]. Braga: Universidade do Minho.
Deng, L., & Yuan, K. H. (2016). Comparing latent means without mean structure models: a projection-based approach. Psychometrika, 81(3), 802-829. doi:10.1007/s11336-015-9491-8
Dias, C., Cruz, J., & Fonseca, A. (2010). Coping Strategies, Multidimensional Competitive Anxiety and Cognitive Threat Appraisal: Differences across sex age and type of sport. Serbian Journal of Sports Sciences, 4(1), 23-31. Recovered of: https://repositorium.sdum.uminho.pt/handle/1822/16596
Dunn, J. G., Dunn, J. C., Wilson, P., & Syrotuik, D. G. (2000). Reexamining the factorial composition and factor structure of the Sport Anxiety Scale. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 22(2), 183-193. doi:10.1123/jsep.22.2.183
Gill, D., Williams, L., & Reifsteck, E. (2017). Psychological Dynamics of Sport and Exercise.United States: Human Kinetics.
Guillén, F., & Laborde, S. (2014). Higher-order structure of mental toughness and the analysis of latent mean differences between athletes from 34 disciplines and non-athletes. Personality and Individual Differences, 60, 30-35. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2013.11.019
Grossbard, J. R., Smith, R. E., Smoll, F. L., & Cumming, S. P. (2009). Competitive anxiety in young athletes: Differentiating somatic anxiety, worry, and concentration disruption. Anxiety, Stress, and Coping, 22(2), 153–166. doi:10.1080/10615800802020643
Hair, J. F., Black, W. C., Babin, B. J., Anderson, R. E., & Tatham, R. L. (2009). Análise multivariada de dados. Bookman Editora.
Hamidi, S., & Besharat, M. A. (2010). Perfectionism and competitive anxiety in athletes. Procedia-Social and Behavioral Sciences, 5, 813-817. doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2010.07.190
Hanton, S., Neil, R., Mellalieu, S. D., & Fletcher, D. (2008). Competitive experience and performance status: An investigation into multidimensional anxiety and coping. European Journal of Sport Science, 8(3), 143-152. doi:10.1080/17461390801987984
Hu, L. T., & Bentler, P. M. (1999). Cutoff Criteria for Fit Indexes in Covariance Structure Analysis: Conventional Criteria Versus New Alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling: a multidisciplinary journal, 6(1), 1-55. doi:10.1080/10705519909540118
Jones, J. G., & Cale, A. (1989). Relationships between multidimensional competitive state anxiety and cognitive and motor subcomponents of performance. Journal of Sports Sciences, 7(3), 229-240. doi:10.1080/02640418908729843
Kirkby, R. J., & Liu, J. (1999). Precompetition anxiety in Chinese athletes. Perceptual and Motor Skills, 88(1), 297-303. doi:10.2466/pms.1999.88.1.297
Koehn, S. (2013). Effects of confidence and anxiety on flow state in competition. European journal of sport science, 13(5), 543-550. doi:10.1080/17461391.2012.746731
Kline, R. B. (2016). Principles and practice of structural equation modeling (4th ed.). New York: The Guilford Press.
Kristjánsdóttir, H., Erlingsdóttir, A. V., Sveinsson, G., & Saavedra, J. M. (2018). Psychological skills, mental toughness and anxiety in elite handball players. Personality and Individual Differences, 134, 125-130. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2018.06.011
Liu, W., Lei, H., Li, L., Yi, J., Zhong, M.,Yang, Y., & Zhu, X. (2015). Factorial invariance of the mood and anxiety symptom questionnaire-short form across gender. Personality and Individual Differences, 87, 136-140. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2015.07.036
Loehlin, J. C. (2003). Latent variable models: An introduction to factor, path, and structural equation analysis (4th ed.). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Marôco J. (2010). [Structural equation modeling: Theoretical foundations, software and aplications]. Lisboa, Portugal: Report Number, 374 p. Portuguese.
Marsh, H. W., Hau, K.-T., & Grayson, D. (2005). Goodness of Fit in Structural Equation Models. In A. Maydeu-Olivares & J. J. McArdle (Eds.), Multivariate applications book series. Contemporary psychometrics: A festschrift for Roderick P. McDonald(pp. 275-340). Mahwah, NJ, US: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates Publishers.
Martens, R. Vealey, R. S., & Burton, D. (1990). Competitive anxiety in sport. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.
Newsom, J. (2005). Practical approaches to dealing with nonnormal and categorical variables.
Nunnally, J. C., & Bernstein, I. H. (1994). Psychometric theory. New York, NY: McGraw Hill.
O’Donoghue, P., & Neil, R. (2015). Relative age effect on behavioural regulation, burnout potential and anxiety of sports students. European Journal of Human Movement, 35, 1-11. Recovered of: https://repository.cardiffmet.ac.uk/handle/10369/7840
Perry, J. D., & Williams, J. M. (1998). Relationship of intensity and direction of competitive trait anxiety to skill level and gender in tennis. The Sport Psychologist, 12(2), 169-179. doi:10.1123/tsp.12.2.169
Prapavessis, H., Maddison, R., & Fletcher, R. (2005). Further examination of the factor integrity of the Sport Anxiety Scale. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 27(2), 253-260. doi:10.1123/jsep.27.2.253
Ramis, Y., Viladrich, C., Sousa, C., & Jannes, C. (2015). Exploring the factorial structure of the Sport Anxiety Scale-2: Invariance across language, gender, age and type of sport. Psicothema, 27(2), 174-181. doi:10.7334/psicothema2014.263
Ramis, Y., Torregosa, M., Viladrich, C. y Cruz, J. (2010). Adaptación y validación de la versión española de la Escala de Ansiedad Competitiva SAS-2 para deportista de iniciación. Psicothema, 22(4), 1004-1009. Recovered of: https://www.redalyc.org/pdf/727/72715515070.pdf
Smith, R. E., Smoll, F. L., Cumming, S. P., & Grossbard, J. R. (2006). Measurement of multidimensional sport performance anxiety in children and adults: The Sport Anxiety Scale-2. Journal of Sport and Exercise Psychology, 28, 479-501. doi:10.1123/jsep.28.4.479
Smith, R.E., Smoll, F.L., & Schutz, R.W. (1990). Measurement and correlates of sport-specific cognitive and somatic trait anxiety: The Sport Anxiety Scale. Anxiety Research, 2, 263-280. doi:10.1080/08917779008248733
Stenling, A., Hassmén, P., & Holmström, S. (2014). Implicit beliefs of ability, approach-avoidance goals and cognitive anxiety among team sport athletes. European journal of sport science, 14(7), 720-729. doi:10.1080/17461391.2014.901419
Terry, P. C., Cox, J. A., Lane, A. M., & Karageorghis, C. I. (1996). Measures of anxiety among tennis players in singles and doubles matches. Perceptual and motor skills, 83(2), 595-603. doi:10.2466/pms.1996.83.2.595
Tsaousis, I., & Kasi, S. (2013). Factorial invariance and latent mean differences of scores on trait emotional intelligence across gender and age. Personality and Individual Differences, 54(2), 169-173. doi:10.1016/j.paid.2012.08.016
Turman, P. D. (2003). Coaches and cohesion: The impact of coaching techniques on team cohesion in the small group sport setting. Journal of Sport Behaviour, 26(1), 86-104.
Vandenberg, R. J., & Lance, C. E. (2000). A review and synthesis of the measurement invariance literature: Suggestions, practices, and recommendations for organizational research. Organizational Research Methods, 3(1), 4-70. doi:10.1177/109442810031002
Vaughn, B., Lee, H-Y, & Kamata, A. (2012). Reliability. In G. Tenenbaum, R. Eklund, & A. Kamatato (Eds.), Measurement in sport and exercise psychology (pp. 25-32) Champaign, IL, Human Kinetics.
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