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Kestens, K., Degeest, S., Miatton, M., & Keppler, H. (2021). An Auditory Stroop Test to Implement in Cognitive Hearing Sciences: Development and Normative Data. International Journal of Psychological Research, 14(2), 37–51. https://doi.org/10.21500/20112084.5118
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The editorial board reserves the right of amendments deemed necessary in the application of the rules of publication.
To give up copyright, the authors allow that, International Journal of Psychological Research, distribute the work more broadly, check for the reuse by others and take care of the necessary procedures for the registration and administration of copyright; at the same time, our editorial board represents the interests of the author and allows authors to re-use his work in various forms. In response to the above, authors transfer copyright to the journal, International Journal of Psychological Research. This transfer does not imply other rights which are not those of authorship (for example those that concern about patents). Likewise, preserves the authors rights to use the work integral or partially in lectures, books and courses, as well as make copies for educational purposes. Finally, the authors may use freely the tables and figures in its future work, wherever make explicit reference to the previous publication in International Journal of Psychological Research. The assignment of copyright includes both virtual rights and forms of the article to allow the editorial to disseminate the work in the manner which it deems appropriate.
The editorial board reserves the right of amendments deemed necessary in the application of the rules of publication.
Abstract
Objective: This study developed and gained insight in an auditory Stroop test, implementable in cognitive hearing sciences. Methods: An auditory Stroop test was developed and performed in 178 participants, aged between 18 and 69 years. This Auditory Stroop test consisted of two tests: Stroop-tones and Stroop-words whereby the pitch of pure-tones and spoken words (i.e., the words high and low) had to be identified by high or low, respectively. An interference score was calculated as a measure of verbal executive functioning. Regression models were conducted to examine the effect of age, sex, education, awakeness, hearing, as well as visual and verbal working memory, and processing speed on the auditory Stroop scores. Normative data were obtained per age decade. Results: Compared to the visual counterparts, the auditory Stroop outcomes were better predicted by verbal working memory and processing speed. A trend was observed showing a decrease in performances with increasing age. No other participant-related variables had a significant relationship with the auditory Stroop test. Conclusion: This auditory Stroop test was considered a good test for measuring executive functioning using auditory stimuli. Implementing this auditory Stroop test within cognitive hearing sciences will contribute to unravel the auditory-cognitive perspective of speech understanding.
References
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Baroun, K., & Alansari, B. (2006). Gender differences in performance on the Stroop Test. Social Behavior and Personality: An International Journal, 34 (3), 309–318. https://doi.org/10.2224/sbp.2006.34.3.309.
Brunetti, R., Del Gatto, C., & Delogu, F. (2014). eCorsi: implementation and testing of the Corsi blocktapping task for digital tablets. Frontiers in Psychology, 5, Article 939. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2014.00939.
Cohen, J., Cohen, P., West, S. G., & Aiken, L. S. (2013). Applied multiple regression/correlation analysis for the behavioral sciences. Routledge.
Danneels, M., Van Hecke, R., Leyssens, S., L.and Degeest, Cambier, D., van de Berg, R., & Maes, L. (2020). 2BALANCE: a cognitive-motor dual-task protocol for individuals with vestibular dysfunction. BMJ Open, 10 (7), Article e037138. http://dx.doi.org/10.1136/bmjopen-2020-037138.
Deal, J. A., Betz, J., Yaffe, K., Harris, T., Purchase-Helzner, E., Satterfield, S., & Lin, F. R. (2017). Hearing Impairment and Incident Dementia and Cognitive Decline in Older Adults: The Health ABC Study. Journal of Gerontology A Biological Science Medical Science, 72 (5), 703–709. https://doi.org/10.1093/gerona/glw069.
Dryden, A., Allen, H. A., Henshaw, H., & Heinrich, A. (2017). The Association Between Cognitive Performance and Speech-in-Noise Perception for Adult Listeners: A Systematic Literature Review and Meta-Analysis. Trends Hear, 21, Article 23 31216517744675. https://doi.org/10.1177/2331216517744675.
Fischer, M. E., Cruickshanks, K. J., Schubert, C. R., Pinto, A. A., Carlsson, C. M., Klein, B. E., & Tweed, T. S. (2016). Age-Related Sensory Impairments and Risk of Cognitive Impairment. J Am Geriatr Soc, 64 (10), 1981–1987. https://doi.org/10.1111/jgs.14308.
Gallacher, J., Ilubaera, V., Ben-Shlomo, Y., Bayer, A., Fish, M., Babisch, W., & Elwood, P. (2012). Auditory threshold, phonologic demand, and incident dementia. Neurology, 79 (15), 1583–159. https://doi.org/10.1212/WNL.0b013e31826e263d.
Gilbert, S. J., & Burgess, P. W. (2008). Executive function. Current biology, 18 (3), R110–R114. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2007.12.014.
Golden, C. J. (1975). A group version of the Stroop Color and Word Test. Journal of personality assessment, 39 (4), 386–388. https://psycnet.apa.org/doi/10.1207/s15327752jpa3904_10.
Grassi, M., & Borella, E. (2013). The role of auditory abilities in basic mechanisms of cognition in older adults. Frontiers in Aging Neuroscience, 5, Article 59. https://doi.org/10.3389/fnagi.2013.00059.
Hameleers, P. M., Van Boxtel, M. J., Hogervorst, E., Riedel, W., Houx, P., Buntinx, F., & Jolles, J. (2000). Habitual caffeine consumption and its relation to memory, attention, planning capacity and psychomotor performance across multiple age groups. Human Psychopharmacology: Clinical and Experimental, 15 (8), 573–581. https://doi.org/10.1002/hup.218.
Harrington, K. D., Lim, Y. Y., Ames, D., Hassenstab, J., Rainey-Smith, S., Robertson, J., & Maruff, P. (2017). Using Robust Normative Data to Investigate the Neuropsychology of Cognitive Aging. Archives Clinical Neuropsychology, 32 (2), 142–154. https://doi.org/doi:10.1093/arclin/acw106.
Houx, P. J., Jolles, J., & Vreeling, F. W. (1993). Stroop interference: aging effects assessed with the Stroop Color-Word Test. Experimental aging research, 19 (3), 209–224. https://doi.org/10.1080/03610739308253934.
Janse, E. (2012). A non-auditory measure of interference predicts distraction by competing speech in older adults. Aging, Neuropsychology, and Cognition, 19 (6), 741–758. https://doi.org/10.1080/13825585.2011.652590.
Jensen, A. R., & Rohwer Jr, W. D. (1966). The Stroop color-word test: a review. Acta psychologica, 25, 36–93. https://doi.org/10.1016/0001-6918(66)90004-7.
Kemper, S., Schmalzried, R., Herman, R., Leedahl, S., & Mohankumar, D. (2009). The effects of aging and dual task demands on language production. Aging, Neuropsychology, and Cognition, 16 (3), 241–259. https://doi.org/10.1080/13825580802438868.
Kessels, R. P., van Den Berg, E., Ruis, C., & Brands, A. M. (2008). The backward span of the Corsi Block-Tapping Task and its association with the WAIS-III Digit Span. Assessment, 15 (4), 426–434. https://doi.org/10.1177/1073191108315611.
Kestens, K., Degeest, S., & Keppler, H. (2021). The Effect of Cognition on the Aided Benefit in Terms of Speech Understanding and Listening Effort Obtained With Digital Hearing Aids: A Systematic Review. American Journal of Audiology, 30, 190–210. https://doi.org/10.1044/2020_aja-20-00019.
Kestens, K., Degeest, S., Miatton, M., & Keppler, H. (2021). Visual and Verbal working memory and processing speed across the adult lifespan: the effect of age, sex, educational level, awakeness, and hearing sensitivity. Frontiers in Psychology, 12 (668828). https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2021.668828.
Kiessling, J., Pichora-Fuller, M. K., Gatehouse, S., Stephens, D., Arlinger, S., Chisolm, T., Davis, A. C., Erber, N. P., Hickson, L., Holmes, A., Rosenhall, U., & von Wedel, H. (2003). Candidature for and delivery of audiological services: Special needs of older people. International Journal of Audiology, 42, 92–101. https://doi.org/10.3109/14992020309074650.
Klein, M., Ponds, R. W., Houx, P. J., & Jolles, J. (1997). Effect of test duration on age-related differences in Stroop interference. Journal of clinical and experimental neuropsychology, 19 (1), 77–82. https://doi.org/10.1080/01688639708403838.
Knight, S., & Heinrich, A. (2017). Different measures of auditory and visual Stroop interference and their relationship to speech intelligibility in noise. Front Psychol, 8, Article 230. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.00230.
Kronholm, E., Sallinen, M., Suutama, T., Sulkava, R., Era, P., & Partonen, T. (2009). Selfreported sleep duration and cognitive functioning in the general population. Journal of sleep research, 18 (4), 436–446. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2869.2009.00765.x.
Laerd Statistics. (2015). Multiple regression using SPSS Statistics. Statistical tutorials and software guides. https://statistics.laerd.com/.
Lewin, C., Wolgers, G., & Herlitz, A. (2001). Sex differences favoring women in verbal but not in visuospatial episodic memory. Neuropsychology, 15 (2), 165. https://doi.org/10.1037/0894-4105.15.2.165.
Lezak, M. D., Howieson, D. B., Loring, D. W., & Fischer, J. S. (2004). Neuropsychological assessment. Oxford University Press.
Livingston, G., Sommerlad, A., Orgeta, V., Costafreda, S. G., Huntley, J., Ames, D., Ballard, C., Banerjee, S., Burns, A., Cohen-Mansfield, J., Cooper, C., Fox, N., Gitlin, L. N., Howard, R., Kales, H. C., Larson, E. B., Ritchie, K., Rockwood, K., Sampson, E. L., . . . Mukadam, N. (2017). Dementia prevention, intervention, and care. The Lancet, 390 (10113), 2673–2734. https://doi.org/10.1016/s0140-6736(17)31363-6.
MacLeod, C. M. (1991). Half a century of research on the Stroop effect: an integrative review. Psychological bulletin, 109 (2), Article 163. https://doi.org/10.1037/0033-2909.109.2.163.
Majeres, R. L. (1997). Sex differences in phonetic processing: Speed of identification of alphabetical sequences. Perceptual Motor Skills, 85 (3_suppl), 1243–1251. https://doi.org/10.2466/pms.1997.85.3f.1243.
Menard, S. (2002). Applied logistic regression analysis (Vol. 106). Sage.
Most, S. B., Sorber, A. V., & Cunningham, J. G. (2007). Auditory Stroop reveals implicit sex associations in adults and children. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 43 (2), 287–294. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2006.02.002.
Nasreddine, Z. S., Phillips, N. A., Bédirian, V., Charbonneau, S., Whitehead, V., Collin, I., & Chertkow, H. (2005). The Montreal Cognitive Assessment, MoCA: a brief screening tool for mild cognitive impairment. Journal of American Geriatric Society, 53 (4), 695–699. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1532-5415.2005.53221.x.
Roberts, K. L., & Hall, D. A. (2008). Examining a supramodal network for conflict processing: a systematic review and novel functional magnetic resonance imaging data for related visual and auditory Stroop tasks. Journal of cognitive neuroscience, 20 (6), 1063–1078. https://doi.org/10.1162/jocn.2008.20074.
Sachdev, P. S., Blacker, D., Blazer, D. G., Ganguli, M., Jeste, D. V., Paulsen, J. S., & Petersen, R. C. (2014). Classifying neurocognitive disorders: the DSM-5 approach. Nature Reviews Neurology, 10 (11), 634. https://doi.org/10.1038/nrneurol.2014.181.
Shen, J., Sherman, M., & Souza, P. E. (2020). Test administration methods and cognitive test scores in older adults with hearing loss. Gerontology, 66 (1), 24–32. https://doi.org/10.1159/000500777.
Shor, R. E. (1975). An auditory analog of the Stroop test. Journal of General Psychology, 93, Article 281.
Snellen, H. (1873). Probebuchstaben zur bestimmung der sehschärfe. H. Peters.
Sohlberg, M. K. M., & Mateer, C. A. (2017). Cognitive Rehabilitation: An Integrative Neuropsychological Approach. Guilford Publications.
Sommers, M. S., & Danielson, S. M. (1999). Inhibitory processes and spoken word recognition in young and older adults: The interaction of lexical competition and semantic context. Psychology and aging, 14 (3), 458. https://doi.org/10.1037//0882-7974.14.3.458.
Strouwen, C., Molenaar, E. A., Keus, S. H., Münks, L., Bloem, B. R., & Nieuwboer, A. (2016). Test-retest reliability of dual-task outcome measures in people with Parkinson disease. Physical Therapy, 96 (8), 1276–1286. https://doi.org/10.2522/ptj.20150244.
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