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Lupano Peruginni, M. L., & Castro Solano, A. (2015). Intergroup anxiety, cultural sensitivity and socio-cultural diverse leaders’ effectiveness. International Journal of Psychological Research, 8(1), 36–45. https://doi.org/10.21500/20112084.643
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The editorial board reserves the right of amendments deemed necessary in the application of the rules of publication.
To give up copyright, the authors allow that, International Journal of Psychological Research, distribute the work more broadly, check for the reuse by others and take care of the necessary procedures for the registration and administration of copyright; at the same time, our editorial board represents the interests of the author and allows authors to re-use his work in various forms. In response to the above, authors transfer copyright to the journal, International Journal of Psychological Research. This transfer does not imply other rights which are not those of authorship (for example those that concern about patents). Likewise, preserves the authors rights to use the work integral or partially in lectures, books and courses, as well as make copies for educational purposes. Finally, the authors may use freely the tables and figures in its future work, wherever make explicit reference to the previous publication in International Journal of Psychological Research. The assignment of copyright includes both virtual rights and forms of the article to allow the editorial to disseminate the work in the manner which it deems appropriate.
The editorial board reserves the right of amendments deemed necessary in the application of the rules of publication.
Abstract
This intended to analyze differences in the level of perception –of general population participants- in regards to leaders with diverse socio-cultural characteristics (gender, sexual orientation, religious affiliation, nationality) and also verify by means of structural equations, the influence of intergroup anxiety and the cultural sensitivity in terms of the level of effectiveness perception. Participants: 481 adults from Argentina (52.8% female, 47.2% male; age average = 35.45 years old). Instruments: Intergroup Anxiety scale, Cultural Sensitivity scale, and an ad hoc protocol designed to assess level of effectiveness perception in socio-culturally diverse leaders. Results: Differences in the level of perception of effectiveness according to sociocultural characteristics could not be confirmed. However, a direct effect of cultural sensitivity and an indirect effect of intergroup anxiety on the levels of effectiveness perception were confirmed. This work contributes to previous studies on prejudice and leadership.
References
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Bennett, J.M. & Bennett, M.J. (2004). Developing intercultural Sensitivity: An Integrative Approach to Global and domestic Diversity. In D. Landis, J.M. Bennett & M.J. Bennett (Eds.). Handbook of Intercultural Training (pp. 147-166). California: Sage
Bertrand, M., & Mullainathan, S. (2004). Are Emily and Greg more employable than Lakisha and Jamal? A field experiment on labor market discrimination. The American Economic Review, 94(4), 991–1013.
Berry, J. W. (2006). Mutual attitudes among immigrants and ethnocultural groups in Canada. International of Journal of Intercultural Relations, 30 (6), 719-734
Byrne, B. M. (2001). Structural equation modeling with AMOS: Basic concepts, applications, and programming. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Carr, S. C. (2011). A Global Community Psychology of Mobility. Psychosocial Intervention, 20, 319-325. DOI:10.5093/in2011v20n3a8
Casas X. (2010). Hay más jefas pero pocas llegan a ser CEO. Recuperado el 21 de marzo de 2011 de http://www.iae.edu.ar/iaehoy/Documents/NG_20100308_Cronista_Debeljuh_MujeresLideres.pdf
Castro Solano, A. (2009). La evaluación de la sensibilidad cultural. Un estudio preliminar con estudiantes extranjeros. Acta Psiquiátrica y Psicológica de América Latina, 55 (4), 229-238
Castro Solano, A. (2011). Estrategias de aculturación y adaptación psicológica y sociocultural de estudiantes extranjeros en la argentina. Interdisciplinaria, 28(1), 1-16.
Castro Solano, A. (2011). La evaluación de las competencias culturales de los líderes mediante el Inventario de Adaptación Cultural. Anales de Psicología de la Universidad de Murcia, 27(2), 507-517.
Castro Solano, A. (2013). Predictores de las relaciones interculturales con estudiantes universitarios extranjeros. Acta Psiquiátrica y
R E S E A R C H
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH Intergroup anxiety in diverse leaders’
Lupano and Castro (2014)
int.j.psychol.res. 8 (1) PP. 36 - 45
Psicológica de América Latina, 59 (2), 104-113.
Castro Solano A., Becerra L. & Lupano Perugini, M.L. (2007). Prototipos de liderazgo en población civil y militar. Interdisciplinaria, 24, 1, 65- 94.
Cuadrado, I. Navas, M. & Molero, F. (2006). Mujeres y Liderazgo. Claves Psicosociales del Techo de Cristal. Madrid: Sanz y Torres.
Chin, J. L. (2009). Diversity in mind and in action. Westport, CT: Praeger.
Chin J.L. (2010). Introduction to the Special Issue on Diversity and Leadership. American Psychologist, 65(3), 150-156.
Chin, J. L. (2013). Introduction: Special section on Asian American leadership. Asian American Journal of Psychology, 4 (4), 235–239. DOI: 10.1037/a0035144
Chin, J.L. & Sánchez-Hucles, J. (2007). Diversity and leadership. American Psychologist, 62(6), 608-609.
Chrobot-Mason, D., Ruderman, M.N. & Nishii, L.H. (2013). Leadership in a diverse workplace. In: R. M. Quinetta (Ed), The Oxford handbook of diversity and work (pp. 315-340). New York, NY, US: Oxford University Press
Cohen, J. (1992). A power primer. Psychological Bulletin, 112(1), 155-159. DOI:10.1037/0033-2909.112.1.155.
Cox,T.(1993). Cultural diversity in organizations. San Francisco: Berrett-Koehler.
Den Hartog, D. N., & Dickson, W. (2004). Leadership and culture. In J. Antonakis, A. T. Cianciolo, & R. J. Sternberg (Eds.), The nature of leadership (pp. 249–278). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Dezsö, C. L. & Ross, D. G. (2012). Does female representation in top management improve firm performance? A panel data investigation. Strat. Mgmt. Journal, 33, 1072–1089. doi: 10.1002/smj.1955
Dixon, J., & Rosenbaum, M. (2004). Nice to know you? Testing contact, cultural, and group threat theories of anti-Black and anti-Hispanic stereotypes. Social Science Quarterly, 85(2), 2004.
Duckitt, J., Callaghan, J., & Wagner, C. (2005). Group identification and outgroup attitudes in four South African ethnic groups: A multidimensional approach. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 31, 633–646.
Eagly, A.H. & Carli L.L. (2007). Through the labyrinth. The truth about how women become leaders. Boston: Harvard Business School Press.
Eagly, A.H. & Chin, J.L. (2010). Are memberships in Race, Ethnicity, and Gender categories merely surface characteristics? American Psychologist, 65(9), 934-935. DOI: 10.1037/a0021830
Eagly, A. H. & Karau, S. J. (2002). Role congruity theory of prejudice toward female leaders. Psychological Review, 109, 573- 598.
Eagly, A. H., & Diekman, A. B. (2005). What is the problem? Prejudice as an attitude-in-context. In J. F. Dovidio, P. Glick, & L. Rudman (Eds.), On the nature of prejudice: Fifty years after Allport (pp. 19–35).
Fassinger, R. E., Shullman, S. L., & Stevenson, M. R. (2010). Toward an affirmative lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender leadership paradigm. American Psychologist, 65, 201–215.
Fiske, S.T. & Lee, T.L. (2008). Stereotypes and prejudice create workplace discrimination. In P. Brief (Ed.), Diversity at work (pp 13-54). New York: Cambridge University Press.
Fowers, B. & Davidov, B. (2006). The virtue of multiculturalism. Personal transformation, character and openness to the other. American Psychologist, 61(86), 581-594.
Gaertner, S. L., & Dovidio, J. F. (1986). The aversive form of racism. In J. F. Dovidio & S. L. Gaertner (Eds.), Prejudice, discrimination, and racism (pp. 61-89). Orlando, FL: Academic Press.
García-Cueto, E., Gallo, P. & Miranda, R. (1998). Bondad de ajuste en el análisis factorial confirmatorio. Psicothema, 10, 717-724.
Hammer, M., Bennett, M. & Wiseman, R. (2003). Measuring intercultural sensitivity: the intercultural development inventory. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 27, 421-443.
Hodson, G., Dovidio, J. F., & Gaertner, S. L. (2004). The aversive form of racism. In J. L. Chin (Ed.), The psychology of prejudice and discrimination: Vol. 1. Racism in America (pp. 119–136). Westport, CT:Praeger.
Hu, L., & Bentler, P. M. (1999). Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling, 6, 1–55.
Karahanna,E.-Evaristo,J.R.-Srite,M.(2005): Levels of culture and individual behavior: An integrative persepctive. Journal of Global Information Management, 13(2), 1-20
Katz, I. (1981). Stigma: A social psychological analysis. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum
Kawahara, D. M., Pal, M., & Chin, J. L. (2013). The leadership experiences of Asian Americans. Asian American Journal of Psychology. Advance online publication.
R E S E A R C H
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH Intergroup anxiety in diverse leaders’
Lupano and Castro (2014)
int.j.psychol.res. 8 (1) PP. 36 - 45
Klein, K. M., & Wang, M. (2010). Deep-level diversity and leadership. American Psychologist, 65, 932–933. DOI:10.1037/a0021355
Kline, R. B. (2005). Principles and practice of structural equation modeling (2nd ed.). New York: Guilford
Latinobarómetro (2008). Oportunidades de Integración Regional II. Recuperado de http://www.latinobarometro.org/docs/OportunidadesDeIntegracionIICAFLimaPeru_Abril_16_2008.pdf
Latinobarómetro (2011). Informe 2011. Recuperado de http://www.infoamerica.org/primera/lb_2011.pdf
Lord, R. G., Brown, D. J., Harvey, J. L., & Hall, R. J. (2001). Contextual constraints on prototype generation and their multilevel consequences for leadership perceptions. The Leadership Quarterly, 12, 311–338.
Lupano Perugini, M. L. (2011). Liderazgo, género y prejuicio. Influencia de los estereotipos de género en la efectividad del liderazgo femenino y actitudes hacia las mujeres líderes. Tesis Doctoral.
Lupano Perugini, M. L. & Castro Solano A. (2008). Liderazgo y género. Identificación de Prototipos de liderazgo efectivo. Perspectivas en Psicología, 5(1), 69-77.
Lupano Perugini, M.L. & Castro Solano, A. (2013). Estereotipos de género, sexo del líder y del seguidor: su influencia en las actitudes hacia mujeres líderes. Revista de Psicología 9(17), 87-104
Madon, S., Guyll, M., Aboufadel, K., Montiel, E., Smith, A., Palumbo, P., & Jussim, L. (2001). Ethnic and national stereotypes: The Princeton trilogy revisited and revised. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 27, 996–1010.
Malden, MA, Blackwell & Madon, S. (1997). What do people believe about gay males? A study of stereotype content and strength. Sex Roles, 37, 663–685.
Niemann, Y. F., Jennings, L., Rozelle, R. M., Baxter, J. C., & Sullivan, E. (1994). Use of free responses and cluster analysis to determine stereotypes of eight groups. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 20, 379–390.
Pérez, E., Medrano, L. A. & Sánchez Rosas, J. (2013). El Path Analysis: conceptos básicos y ejemplos de aplicación. Revista Argentina de Ciencias del Comportamiento, 5 (1), 52-56.
Pettigrew, T.F. & Tropp, L. (2000). Does integroups contact reduce prejudice: Recent meta-analytic findings. In: S. Oskamp (Ed.), Reducing prejudice and discrimination (pp. 93-114). Mahwah. NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum
Richard, O., McMillan, A., Chadwick, K., & Dwyer, S. (2003). Employing an innovation strategy in racially diverse workforces. Group & Organization Management, 28, 107-126
Rosette, A.S., Leonardelli, G.J. & Phillips, K.W. (2008). The white standard: racial bias in leader categorization. Journal of Applied Psychology, 93 (4), 758–777. DOI: 10.1037/0021-9010.93.4.758
Sanchez-Hucles, J. V., & Davis, D. D. (2010). Women and women of color in leadership: Complexity, identity, and ntersectionality. American Psychologist, 65, 171–181.
Stephan, W. G & Stephan, C. (1985). Intergroup anxiety. Journal of Social Issues, 41, 157-176.
Thomas, D.(2008). Cross-cultural management. Essential Concepts. Londres: Sage.
U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. (2009, January). Household data annual averages: Employed persons by detailed occupation, sex, race, and Hispanic or Latino ethnicity. Retrieved from http://www.bls.gov/cps/ cpsaat11.pdf
U.S. Census Bureau. (2010). Statistical abstract of the United States: 2010 (129thed.) Retrieved from http://www.census.gov/compendia/statab/
Weston, R. & Gore Jr., P. A., (2006). A Brief Guide to Structural Equation Modeling. The Counseling Psychologist, 34; 719-751.
Wofford, J., Goodwin, V. L. & Wittington, J. (1998). A field study of a cognitive approach to understanding transformational and transactional leadership. Leadership Quarterly. 9, 55-84.
Zweigenhaft, R. L., & Domhoff, G. W. (2006). Diversity in the power elite: How it happened, why it matters. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield
Bennett, J.M. & Bennett, M.J. (2004). Developing intercultural Sensitivity: An Integrative Approach to Global and domestic Diversity. In D. Landis, J.M. Bennett & M.J. Bennett (Eds.). Handbook of Intercultural Training (pp. 147-166). California: Sage
Bertrand, M., & Mullainathan, S. (2004). Are Emily and Greg more employable than Lakisha and Jamal? A field experiment on labor market discrimination. The American Economic Review, 94(4), 991–1013.
Berry, J. W. (2006). Mutual attitudes among immigrants and ethnocultural groups in Canada. International of Journal of Intercultural Relations, 30 (6), 719-734
Byrne, B. M. (2001). Structural equation modeling with AMOS: Basic concepts, applications, and programming. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.
Carr, S. C. (2011). A Global Community Psychology of Mobility. Psychosocial Intervention, 20, 319-325. DOI:10.5093/in2011v20n3a8
Casas X. (2010). Hay más jefas pero pocas llegan a ser CEO. Recuperado el 21 de marzo de 2011 de http://www.iae.edu.ar/iaehoy/Documents/NG_20100308_Cronista_Debeljuh_MujeresLideres.pdf
Castro Solano, A. (2009). La evaluación de la sensibilidad cultural. Un estudio preliminar con estudiantes extranjeros. Acta Psiquiátrica y Psicológica de América Latina, 55 (4), 229-238
Castro Solano, A. (2011). Estrategias de aculturación y adaptación psicológica y sociocultural de estudiantes extranjeros en la argentina. Interdisciplinaria, 28(1), 1-16.
Castro Solano, A. (2011). La evaluación de las competencias culturales de los líderes mediante el Inventario de Adaptación Cultural. Anales de Psicología de la Universidad de Murcia, 27(2), 507-517.
Castro Solano, A. (2013). Predictores de las relaciones interculturales con estudiantes universitarios extranjeros. Acta Psiquiátrica y
R E S E A R C H
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH Intergroup anxiety in diverse leaders’
Lupano and Castro (2014)
int.j.psychol.res. 8 (1) PP. 36 - 45
Psicológica de América Latina, 59 (2), 104-113.
Castro Solano A., Becerra L. & Lupano Perugini, M.L. (2007). Prototipos de liderazgo en población civil y militar. Interdisciplinaria, 24, 1, 65- 94.
Cuadrado, I. Navas, M. & Molero, F. (2006). Mujeres y Liderazgo. Claves Psicosociales del Techo de Cristal. Madrid: Sanz y Torres.
Chin, J. L. (2009). Diversity in mind and in action. Westport, CT: Praeger.
Chin J.L. (2010). Introduction to the Special Issue on Diversity and Leadership. American Psychologist, 65(3), 150-156.
Chin, J. L. (2013). Introduction: Special section on Asian American leadership. Asian American Journal of Psychology, 4 (4), 235–239. DOI: 10.1037/a0035144
Chin, J.L. & Sánchez-Hucles, J. (2007). Diversity and leadership. American Psychologist, 62(6), 608-609.
Chrobot-Mason, D., Ruderman, M.N. & Nishii, L.H. (2013). Leadership in a diverse workplace. In: R. M. Quinetta (Ed), The Oxford handbook of diversity and work (pp. 315-340). New York, NY, US: Oxford University Press
Cohen, J. (1992). A power primer. Psychological Bulletin, 112(1), 155-159. DOI:10.1037/0033-2909.112.1.155.
Cox,T.(1993). Cultural diversity in organizations. San Francisco: Berrett-Koehler.
Den Hartog, D. N., & Dickson, W. (2004). Leadership and culture. In J. Antonakis, A. T. Cianciolo, & R. J. Sternberg (Eds.), The nature of leadership (pp. 249–278). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Dezsö, C. L. & Ross, D. G. (2012). Does female representation in top management improve firm performance? A panel data investigation. Strat. Mgmt. Journal, 33, 1072–1089. doi: 10.1002/smj.1955
Dixon, J., & Rosenbaum, M. (2004). Nice to know you? Testing contact, cultural, and group threat theories of anti-Black and anti-Hispanic stereotypes. Social Science Quarterly, 85(2), 2004.
Duckitt, J., Callaghan, J., & Wagner, C. (2005). Group identification and outgroup attitudes in four South African ethnic groups: A multidimensional approach. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 31, 633–646.
Eagly, A.H. & Carli L.L. (2007). Through the labyrinth. The truth about how women become leaders. Boston: Harvard Business School Press.
Eagly, A.H. & Chin, J.L. (2010). Are memberships in Race, Ethnicity, and Gender categories merely surface characteristics? American Psychologist, 65(9), 934-935. DOI: 10.1037/a0021830
Eagly, A. H. & Karau, S. J. (2002). Role congruity theory of prejudice toward female leaders. Psychological Review, 109, 573- 598.
Eagly, A. H., & Diekman, A. B. (2005). What is the problem? Prejudice as an attitude-in-context. In J. F. Dovidio, P. Glick, & L. Rudman (Eds.), On the nature of prejudice: Fifty years after Allport (pp. 19–35).
Fassinger, R. E., Shullman, S. L., & Stevenson, M. R. (2010). Toward an affirmative lesbian, gay, bisexual, and transgender leadership paradigm. American Psychologist, 65, 201–215.
Fiske, S.T. & Lee, T.L. (2008). Stereotypes and prejudice create workplace discrimination. In P. Brief (Ed.), Diversity at work (pp 13-54). New York: Cambridge University Press.
Fowers, B. & Davidov, B. (2006). The virtue of multiculturalism. Personal transformation, character and openness to the other. American Psychologist, 61(86), 581-594.
Gaertner, S. L., & Dovidio, J. F. (1986). The aversive form of racism. In J. F. Dovidio & S. L. Gaertner (Eds.), Prejudice, discrimination, and racism (pp. 61-89). Orlando, FL: Academic Press.
García-Cueto, E., Gallo, P. & Miranda, R. (1998). Bondad de ajuste en el análisis factorial confirmatorio. Psicothema, 10, 717-724.
Hammer, M., Bennett, M. & Wiseman, R. (2003). Measuring intercultural sensitivity: the intercultural development inventory. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 27, 421-443.
Hodson, G., Dovidio, J. F., & Gaertner, S. L. (2004). The aversive form of racism. In J. L. Chin (Ed.), The psychology of prejudice and discrimination: Vol. 1. Racism in America (pp. 119–136). Westport, CT:Praeger.
Hu, L., & Bentler, P. M. (1999). Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: Conventional criteria versus new alternatives. Structural Equation Modeling, 6, 1–55.
Karahanna,E.-Evaristo,J.R.-Srite,M.(2005): Levels of culture and individual behavior: An integrative persepctive. Journal of Global Information Management, 13(2), 1-20
Katz, I. (1981). Stigma: A social psychological analysis. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum
Kawahara, D. M., Pal, M., & Chin, J. L. (2013). The leadership experiences of Asian Americans. Asian American Journal of Psychology. Advance online publication.
R E S E A R C H
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF PSYCHOLOGICAL RESEARCH Intergroup anxiety in diverse leaders’
Lupano and Castro (2014)
int.j.psychol.res. 8 (1) PP. 36 - 45
Klein, K. M., & Wang, M. (2010). Deep-level diversity and leadership. American Psychologist, 65, 932–933. DOI:10.1037/a0021355
Kline, R. B. (2005). Principles and practice of structural equation modeling (2nd ed.). New York: Guilford
Latinobarómetro (2008). Oportunidades de Integración Regional II. Recuperado de http://www.latinobarometro.org/docs/OportunidadesDeIntegracionIICAFLimaPeru_Abril_16_2008.pdf
Latinobarómetro (2011). Informe 2011. Recuperado de http://www.infoamerica.org/primera/lb_2011.pdf
Lord, R. G., Brown, D. J., Harvey, J. L., & Hall, R. J. (2001). Contextual constraints on prototype generation and their multilevel consequences for leadership perceptions. The Leadership Quarterly, 12, 311–338.
Lupano Perugini, M. L. (2011). Liderazgo, género y prejuicio. Influencia de los estereotipos de género en la efectividad del liderazgo femenino y actitudes hacia las mujeres líderes. Tesis Doctoral.
Lupano Perugini, M. L. & Castro Solano A. (2008). Liderazgo y género. Identificación de Prototipos de liderazgo efectivo. Perspectivas en Psicología, 5(1), 69-77.
Lupano Perugini, M.L. & Castro Solano, A. (2013). Estereotipos de género, sexo del líder y del seguidor: su influencia en las actitudes hacia mujeres líderes. Revista de Psicología 9(17), 87-104
Madon, S., Guyll, M., Aboufadel, K., Montiel, E., Smith, A., Palumbo, P., & Jussim, L. (2001). Ethnic and national stereotypes: The Princeton trilogy revisited and revised. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 27, 996–1010.
Malden, MA, Blackwell & Madon, S. (1997). What do people believe about gay males? A study of stereotype content and strength. Sex Roles, 37, 663–685.
Niemann, Y. F., Jennings, L., Rozelle, R. M., Baxter, J. C., & Sullivan, E. (1994). Use of free responses and cluster analysis to determine stereotypes of eight groups. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 20, 379–390.
Pérez, E., Medrano, L. A. & Sánchez Rosas, J. (2013). El Path Analysis: conceptos básicos y ejemplos de aplicación. Revista Argentina de Ciencias del Comportamiento, 5 (1), 52-56.
Pettigrew, T.F. & Tropp, L. (2000). Does integroups contact reduce prejudice: Recent meta-analytic findings. In: S. Oskamp (Ed.), Reducing prejudice and discrimination (pp. 93-114). Mahwah. NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum
Richard, O., McMillan, A., Chadwick, K., & Dwyer, S. (2003). Employing an innovation strategy in racially diverse workforces. Group & Organization Management, 28, 107-126
Rosette, A.S., Leonardelli, G.J. & Phillips, K.W. (2008). The white standard: racial bias in leader categorization. Journal of Applied Psychology, 93 (4), 758–777. DOI: 10.1037/0021-9010.93.4.758
Sanchez-Hucles, J. V., & Davis, D. D. (2010). Women and women of color in leadership: Complexity, identity, and ntersectionality. American Psychologist, 65, 171–181.
Stephan, W. G & Stephan, C. (1985). Intergroup anxiety. Journal of Social Issues, 41, 157-176.
Thomas, D.(2008). Cross-cultural management. Essential Concepts. Londres: Sage.
U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics. (2009, January). Household data annual averages: Employed persons by detailed occupation, sex, race, and Hispanic or Latino ethnicity. Retrieved from http://www.bls.gov/cps/ cpsaat11.pdf
U.S. Census Bureau. (2010). Statistical abstract of the United States: 2010 (129thed.) Retrieved from http://www.census.gov/compendia/statab/
Weston, R. & Gore Jr., P. A., (2006). A Brief Guide to Structural Equation Modeling. The Counseling Psychologist, 34; 719-751.
Wofford, J., Goodwin, V. L. & Wittington, J. (1998). A field study of a cognitive approach to understanding transformational and transactional leadership. Leadership Quarterly. 9, 55-84.
Zweigenhaft, R. L., & Domhoff, G. W. (2006). Diversity in the power elite: How it happened, why it matters. Lanham, MD: Rowman & Littlefield
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