COVID-19 Related Stresses, Conspiracy Beliefs, Uncertainty, and Nonadherence to Safety Guidelines
Authors
Usha Barahmand
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Samaneh Mohamadpour
Ruhollah Heydari Sheikh Ahmad
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Barahmand, U., Mohamadpour, S., & Sheikh Ahmad, R. H. (2022). COVID-19 Related Stresses, Conspiracy Beliefs, Uncertainty, and Nonadherence to Safety Guidelines. International Journal of Psychological Research, 15(2), 22–33. https://doi.org/10.21500/20112084.5367
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To give up copyright, the authors allow that, International Journal of Psychological Research, distribute the work more broadly, check for the reuse by others and take care of the necessary procedures for the registration and administration of copyright; at the same time, our editorial board represents the interests of the author and allows authors to re-use his work in various forms. In response to the above, authors transfer copyright to the journal, International Journal of Psychological Research. This transfer does not imply other rights which are not those of authorship (for example those that concern about patents). Likewise, preserves the authors rights to use the work integral or partially in lectures, books and courses, as well as make copies for educational purposes. Finally, the authors may use freely the tables and figures in its future work, wherever make explicit reference to the previous publication in International Journal of Psychological Research. The assignment of copyright includes both virtual rights and forms of the article to allow the editorial to disseminate the work in the manner which it deems appropriate.
The editorial board reserves the right of amendments deemed necessary in the application of the rules of publication.
Abstract
Introduction: Inconsistent use of protective preventive measures and nonadherence of the guidelines set by the World Health Organization regarding the coronavirus are associated with increased morbidity and mortality, as well as increased health care costs. Objective: The purpose of this study was to examine the role of COVID-19 related worries, conspiracy beliefs, and uncertainty in adherence to preventative measures in Iran. Method: In a large survey with data collected online from a volunteer sample of 599 individuals, assessments were made of the distress associated with the anticipated potential consequences associated with the COVID-19 pandemic and the lockdown, extent of agreement with conspiracy beliefs, level of situation-specific uncertainty, and self-reports of compliance with preventive measures. Data were analyzed to explore paths leading to nonadherence to safety guidelines proposed by the medical authorities. Results: A large majority of individuals report significant distress and worry associated with the COVID-19 pandemic. Results indicate that increasing levels of situation-specific uncertainty intolerance, as well as conspiracy beliefs regarding the coronavirus, are associated with non-compliance with the advised protocols. Specifically, the results show that worries related to the COVID-19 pandemic are linked to non-compliance with preventive measures through conspiracy beliefs and feelings of uncertainty associated with the COVID-19 situation even after gender, education, and perceived socioeconomic status were controlled. Conclusions: Findings imply that emotional exhaustion is likely to have set in and become counterproductive as people choose to violate safety guidelines. The authors discuss the theoretical and practical implications of these results.
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Bardeen, J. R., Fergus, T. A., & Orcutt, H. K. (2013). Testing a hierarchical model of distress tolerance. Journal of Psychopathology and Behavioral Assessment, 35 (4), 495–505. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10862-013-9359-0
Bask, M., & Salmela-Aro, K. (2013). Burned out to drop out: Exploring the relationship between school burnout and school dropout. European journal of psychology of education, 28 (2), 511–528. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10212-012-01265
Bertin, P., Nera, K., & Delouvée, S. (2020). Conspiracy Beliefs, Rejection of Vaccination, and Support for hydroxychloroquine: A Conceptual Replication-Extension in the COVID-19 Pandemic Context [Brief Research Report. Frontiers in Psychology, 11. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.565128
Bierwiaczonek, K., Kunst, J. R., & Pich, O. (2020). Belief in COVID-19 Conspiracy Theories Reduces Social Distancing over Time. Applied psychology: health and well-being, 12 (4), 1270–1285. https://doi.org/10.1111/aphw.12223
Bogart, L. M., Wagner, G., Galvan, F. H., & Banks, D. (2010). Conspiracy Beliefs About HIV Are Related to Antiretroviral Treatment Nonadherence Among African American Men With HIV. JAIDS Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes, 53 (5), 648–655. https://journals.lww.com/jaids/Fulltext/2010/04150/Conspiracy_Beliefs_About_HIV_Are_Related_to.13.aspx
Bronfenbrenner, U., & Morris, P. A. (1998). The ecology of developmental processes. In R. M. Lerner (Ed.), Handbook of child psychology (5th ed., pp. 993–1028). John Wiley.
Brotherton, R., French, C. C., & Pickering, A. D. (2013). Measuring belief in conspiracy theories: The generic conspiracist beliefs scale. Frontiers in Psychology, 4, 279–279. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00279
Brouard, S., Vasilopoulos, P., & Becher, M. (2020). Sociodemographic and Psychological Correlates of Compliance with the COVID-19 Public Health Measures in France. Canadian journal of political science, 53 (2), 253–258. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0008423920000335
Bruder, M., Haffke, P., Neave, N., Nouripanah, N., & Imhoff, R. (2013). Measuring individual differences in generic beliefs in conspiracy theories across cultures: Conspiracy mentality questionnaire. Frontiers in Psychology, 4, 225–225. https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00225
Carleton, R. N. (2016). Fear of the unknown: One fear to rule them all? Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 41, 5–21. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.janxdis.2016.03.011
Carleton, R. N., Norton, M. A. P. J., & Asmundson, G. J. G. (2006). Fearing the unknown: A short version of the Intolerance of Uncertainty Scale. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 21 (1), 105–117. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.janxdis.2006.03.014
Demerouti, E., Mostert, K., & Bakker, A. B. (2010). Burnout and Work Engagement: A Thorough Investigation of the Independency of Both Constructs. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 15 (3), 209–222. https://doi.org/10.1037/a0019408
Earnshaw, V. A., Bogart, L. M., Klompas, M., & Katz, I. T. (2019). Medical mistrust in the context of Ebola: Implications for intended care-seeking and quarantine policy support in the United States. Journal of Health Psychology, 24 (2), 219–228. https://doi.org/10.1177/1359105316650507
Earnshaw, V. A., Eaton, L. A., Kalichman, S. C., Brousseau, N. M., Hill, E. C., Fox, A. B. (2020). COVID 19 conspiracy beliefs, health behaviors, and policy support. Translational Behavioral Medicine, 10 (4), 850. https://doi.org/10.1093/tbm/ibaa090
Erceg, N., Ruoji, M., & Gali, Z. (2020). Misbehaving in the Corona crisis: The role of anxiety and unfounded beliefs. Current Psychology, 1–10. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-020-01040-4
Freeston, M. H., Rhéaume, J., Letarte, H., Dugas, M., & Ladouceur, R. (1994). Why do people worry? Personality and Individual Differences, 17 (6), 791–802. https://doi.org/10.1016/0191-8869(94)90048-5
Goertzel, T. (1994). Belief in Conspiracy Theories. Political Psychology, 15 (4), 731–742. https://doi.org/10.2307/3791630
Grzesiak-Feldman, M. (2013). The Effect of High-Anxiety Situations on Conspiracy Thinking. Current Psychology, 32 (1), 100–118. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12144-013-9165-6
Harper, C. A., Satchell, L. P., Fido, D., & Latzman, R. D. (2020). Functional Fear Predicts Public Health Compliance in the COVID-19 Pandemic. International journal of mental health and addiction, 19 (5), 1875–1888. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11469-020-00281-5
Hayes, A. (2018). Introduction to mediation, moderation, and conditional process analysis: A regression based approach (2nd ed.). The Guilford Press.
Hayes, A. F., & Rockwood, N. J. (2017). Regression based statistical mediation and moderation analysis in clinical research: Observations, recommendations, and implementation. Behaviour Research and Therapy, 98, 39–57. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.brat.2016.11.001
Hills, S., & Eraso, Y. (2021). Factors associated with non-adherence to social distancing rules during the COVID-19 pandemic: a logistic regression analysis. BMC Public Health, 21 (1), 352–352. https://doi.org/10.1186/s12889-021-10379-7
Huang, V., Yu, M., Carleton, R., & Beshai, S. (2019). Intolerance of uncertainty fuels depressive symptoms through rumination: Cross-sectional and longitudinal studies. PloS One, 14 (11), 0224865–0224865. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0224865
Jolley, D., & Douglas, K. M. (2014). The effects of antivaccine conspiracy theories on vaccination intentions. PloS One, 9 (2), 89177–89177. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0089177
Jolley, D., & Paterson, J. L. (2020). Pylons ablaze: Examining the role of 5G COVID19 conspiracy beliefs and support for violence. British Journal of Social Psychology, 59 (3), 628–640. https://doi.org/10.1111/bjso.12394
Khaje Mansoori, A., Mohammadkhani, P., Mazidi, M., Kami, M., Bakhshi Nodooshan, M., & Shahidi, S. (2016). The role of metacognition and intolerance of uncertainty in differentiating illness anxiety and generalized anxiety. Practice in Clinical Psychology, 4, 57–65.
Laposa, J. M., Collimore, K. C., Hawley, L. L., & Rector, N. A. (2015). Distress tolerance in OCD and anxiety disorders, and its relationship with anxiety sensitivity and intolerance of uncertainty. Journal of Anxiety Disorders, 33, 8–14. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.janxdis.2015.04.003
Luhmann, C. C., Ishida, K., & Hajcak, G. (2011). Intolerance of Uncertainty and Decisions About Delayed, Probabilistic Rewards. Behavior Therapy, 42 (3), 378–386. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.beth.2010.09.002
Lyubomirsky, S., & Tkach, C. (2003). The Consequences of Dysphoric Rumination. In C. Papageorgiou & A. Wells (Eds.), Depressive rumination: Nature, theory and treatment (pp. 21–41). John Wiley & Sons Ltd. https://doi.org/10.1002/9780470713853.ch2
Maftei, A., & Holman, A. .-C. (2020). Beliefs in conspiracy theories, intolerance of uncertainty, and moral disengagement during the coronavirus crisis. Ethics & Behavior, 32 (1), 1–11. https://doi.org/10.1080/10508422.2020.1843171
Mahoney, A. E. J., & McEvoy, P. M. (2012). Trait Versus Situation-Specific Intolerance of Uncertainty in a Clinical Sample with Anxiety and Depressive Disorders. Cognitive Behaviour Therapy, 41 (1), 26–39. https://doi.org/10.1080/16506073.2011.622131
Maslach, C., & Jackson, S. E. (1981). The Measurement of Experienced Burnout. Journal of occupational behaviour, 2 (2), 99–113. https://doi.org/10.1002/job.4030020205
Mulki, J. P., Jaramillo, F., & Locander, W. B. (2006). Emotional exhaustion and organizational deviance: Can the right job and a leader’s style make a difference? Journal of Business Research, 59 (12), 1222–1230. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jbusres.2006.09.001
Nelson, B. D., Kessel, E. M., Jackson, F., & Hajcak, G. (2015). The impact of an unpredictable context and intolerance of uncertainty on the electrocortical response to monetary gains and losses. Cognitive, affective, & behavioral neuroscience, 16 (1), 153–163. https://doi.org/10.3758/s13415-015-0382-3
Nolen-Hoeksema, S. (1991). Responses to Depression and Their Effects on the Duration of Depressive Episodes. Journal of abnormal psychology, 100 (4), 569–582. https://doi.org/10.1037/0021843X.100.4.569
Pavela Banai, I., Banai, B., & Miklouˇsi´c, I. (2020). Beliefs in COVID-19 conspiracy theories predict lower level of compliance with the preventive measures both directly and indirectly by lowering trust in government medical officials (Preprint manuscript). https://doi.org/10.31234/osf.io/yevq7
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